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Pay iv 


SERIES ON CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 


EDITED BY 
PATTY SMITH HILL 


PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 








‘pltys spvis-jsig Aq payuleg 


(69 avd aac] <«¢ UIO]S IL ,, 





THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 
IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 


way OF PRIWP 






MAR 9 193] 
4, . 
SA ogica, sew 


BY st a 
YY 
MARGARET E. MATHIAS 


SUPERVISOR OF ART IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
CLEVELAND HEIGHTS, OHIO 


CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS 


NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON 
ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO 


CopyricuT, 1924, By 
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS 


Printed in the United States of America 





TO 
MARY REED 


WHO FIRST MADE ME CONSCIOUS OF THE 
NEGLECTED ART NEEDS OF CHILDREN 





To Professor Patty Smith Hill who enéouraged me to write; 
to Doctor Bessie Lee Gambrill who read the manuscript from 
the psychological point of view; to Doctor Frederick G. Bonser 
who read Chapter XIII; to Miss Gertrude I. Saastamoinen 
who read Chapter XV; to Mr. Clarence A. Mathias who made 
the photographs; to the superintendent, teachers, and super- 
visors of Cleveland Heights whose unusual ability, open- 
mindedness, and co-operation made it possible to put the 
theory into practice in a public-school system; to many oth- 
ers whose criticisms, suggestions, and approvals have been 
invaluable, I gratefully express acknowledg*sent and appre- 
ciation. 





INTRODUCTION 


In this volume we have a record of the art experiences and 
growth of children, teachers, and an art supervisor in a pub- 
lic-school system. In this one cannot fail to see that the 
author has not only a deep feeling of reverence for art, but 
an equally deep reverence for the child’s right to grow through 
crude self-expression into a consciousness of better, more 
beautiful, and more satisfying form. One of our greatest dif- 
ficulties encountered in our effort to preserve the spirit of art 
in the kindergarten and lower grades of our schools may be 
directly traced to the fact that many classroom teachers and 
art supervisors fail to see art expression in its relation to 
child nature and the laws of development. 

Art ceases to be art in Miss Mathias’s scheme of education, 
if any form or technique, no matter how good, is imposed from 
without. In other words, if it fails to grow out of the child’s 
own expression and feeling of need as they lead on to higher 
levels of appreciation and control. 

It is truly a great art to preserve the spirit of art in our 
public-school systems. It is so much easier to send out de- 
tailed directions and prescribed devices and lessons, tuan to 
develop in ourselves and in the teachers under our super- 
vision a knowledge of principles, a skill in technique, and a 
sensibility both to beauty and expression that will serve as a 


compass in leading toward our goal. If with these can be de- 
Ix 


x INTRODUCTION 


veloped a sense of responsibility and a critical attitude to- 
ward one’s work, whether a supervisor be present or absent, 
we have something far more valuable and more stimulating 
to both teacher and child than detailed curricula with direc- 
tions as to what and how, which read more like recipes for 
cook-books than art education. 

In her school Miss Mathias has had an ideal laboratory in 
which to work out her art ideals. The school system was suf- 
ficiently small for her to meet her teachers frequently, not 
only in classes for their own art training, but in the class- 
rooms with the children where she herself demonstrated and 
helped them as they gave instruction in the fine and in- 
dustrial arts. In this way she was able to communicate to 
them not only something of her own art knowledge and skill, 
but also her respect for the child and his right to grow through 
his own expression. In addition, Miss Mathias was fortunate 
in serving under a superintendent who respected not only 
the measurable, but the non-measurable in education—one 
who after having selected his corps of supervisors with great 
care, realized that the best results could be secured only under 
conditions which made it possible for them to work out their 
own convictions with full responsibility for the outcome to 
him, the board, and the citizens. Finally, Miss Mathias had 
in her classroom teachers and supervisory colleagues a highly 
selected group of co-workers, who shared her vision and as- 
sumed their share of responsibility for the wide range of 
liberty bestowed upon them in so enlightened a public-school 
system. 


INTRODUCTION xi 


Such freedom given to both supervisors and teachers 
carries with it a heavy responsibility to live up to the highest 
level of productivity and accomplishment, and those who ac- 
cept this responsibility must realize that freedom should never 
be liberty to lag or waste time, but freedom to grow with the 
fewest hindrances to progress as manifested in positive evi- 
dences of development and achievement. Freedom is under a 
peculiar obligation to have its results put to the test of mea- 
surement in so far as its results are measurable. Unless we 
can demonstrate that freedom is the best medium for growth 
in both measurable and non-measurable achievements, we are 
not worthy of the liberty bestowed upon us. Though no sat- 
isfactory objective measures have been used by Miss Mathias 
in the past, she is working to secure some more objective 
scales and tests which may put her art results on a more 
scientific basis than the trained judgment of herself and her 
teachers. While striving for these more objective standards, 
Miss Mathias has tried to set up some mile-stones by which 
teachers may judge whether children are living up to their 
maximum powers in the kindergarten and the grades. What 
may and what should teachers in each grade expect of their 
children? At this time it is difficult to speak with authority. 
These tentative mile-stones have grown out of studying the 
best efforts of children on each level, and although they need 
to be verified with larger numbers of children, it is hoped 
that they will serve to stimulate teachers to inspire and expect 
even little children to live up to their maximum abilities. 

Miss Mathias has served the Department of Kindergarten- 


xii INTRODUCTION 


First Grade Education of Teachers College for several sum- 
mer sessions, teaching two of the sections for kindergarten, 
and primary teachers, and art supervisors, in the beginnings of 
fine and industrial arts for young children. Miss Mathias’s 
work has grown in and out of public-school situations. The 
final test of any educational work must always be the public 
school, planned for all the children of all of the people. 


Patty SmitH HIrt. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
INTRODUCTION BY PROFESSOR PATTY SMITH HILL......... ix 
CHAPTER 
ULE PE ROD LION coreg ated ey wert vice e's Vea etedatelbe ole due I 
LI GART EXPERTENCES IN: CHILD. Lire. ius yak en 3 
III. THE STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTISTIC 
PROCESS PAST Oil tc aig aoe nl: eteeatette eat mit 6 
IV. EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES IN CHILD LIFE......... 10 
V. MATERIALS SUITED TO CHILD EXPERIENCES....... 12 
ANAS SOL Cy ORR OMR RE Roy ks CHP Rib apa MP OMT IL CER Maem yey HUE Ni 5 
BELTON CHAT) ecko fe ees eg aut afultes ches alaia ented mas 29 
NODE) Cisne CE 0 RA SR iar a AreSIe WR PEL ky a 36 
ESERIES 7 cs oe shat vldn dete Ons REE etek GE ee iat 43 
EN INS 18012 Gog bn fo o won ere einen A tateete aie et ekodtia ot 45 
Pi i OL at ik ae Pe GS em a 59 
Pel em TMA VPRECTATION » \). f)siss oc xchat bien eldle b wis siesta 63 


XIII. Bum~pinc THE ART CURRICULUM FOR THE KINDER- 


GARTEN AND LOWER PRIMARY GRADES.......... 68 
xiii 


XIV 
CHAPTER 


XIV. 
XV. 


CONTENTS 
PAGE 
ARRANGEMENT OF CLASSROOM..........0-+eeeeees go 
SUMMARY OF ART PRINCIPLES NEEDED IN WoRK 
wire Litre CHILDREN: 2... ve. on. eine eee 94 
BIBLIOGRAPHY Mi ois 5.07. eishe eke a's igo tin ce SAL Ue II4 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


BMS LOLTI eee tele Pte RA Lah (elelg: diate shale a les Frontispiece 
PLATE FACING PAGE 
Memes PaASNEC IV AOl,S ClOCNGS ¢ yo viajes ute ais Woe awed & Stale’ 4 

II. Children’s work showing three stages................. 8 
filer aelay 45. the perrect' plastic material’ 7.600 ves ray S. 16 


IV. ‘From wood, children make things satisfying the play 
instinct and things suggested from needs that arise 
i eI SCOOOM AIG ar he i oninn qiaty meray eats eM tae 30 


V. “Children make from cloth articles for themselves and for 
‘ela abd hs bey EER ait GAaveg bs Ma. Gi gage Ue PS te A EUR ALEL Ud 38 


VI. ‘‘The drawing materials that best satisfy the child’s 
needs for expression are the easel, large brushes, 
large sheets of paper, and plenty of accessible paint” 46 


VII. Children’s drawings showing improvement in use of prin- 
CANS OL DETSDECHIVE eho Selene salar eant i tte 50 


VIII. Pictures showing growth both in unity of ideas and in 
ENGL AV AY FPS ADGA § Ces EC Suk Fata ng ML DR ESA A 70 


IX. A series of pictures painted by a first-grade child, evi- 


dently the expression of nature-study experiences... 82 
a Series of children’s pictures showing improvement in 
XI BERET ches a win ett sre oe Meee REE Oa ete 94 


XIV. 
MP OOIOT Ss ce Go sea oo Lk MLE Oo ee ee ee IIo 


| Series of children’s pictures showing improvement in 
XV. 


“A better understanding of the true usefulness of art recog- 
nizes creative power as a divine gift, the natural endowment of 
every human soul, showing itself at first in the form that we call 
appreciation. This appreciation leads a ceriain number to 
produce actual works of art, greater or lesser,—perhaps a temple, 
perhaps only a cup,—but it leads the majority to desire finer 
form and more harmony of tone and color in surroundings and 
in things for daily use. It 1s the individual’s right to have full 


control of these powers.”’ 
—ARTHUR WESLEY DOW. 


I 
THE PROBLEM 


Results have shown that our public school art courses are 
inadequate in that they have failed to enable the average 
individual to meet with intelligence the art problems that 
confront him. We have conscientiously provided materials, 
time, and skilled guidance for artistic training only to find 
as a product of our efforts individuals who have little or no 
ability to meet every-day art problems. 

If we are to hope for a society with art appreciation and 
some ability to meet art problems, an adequate art course 
must provide for developing ability for self-expression and 
for understanding the expressions of others. Analysis of our 
art courses shows that ability to express oneself has been 
given slight consideration. On the contrary, children have 
been asked repeatedly to express the ideas of others; through 
this imitation they have acquired skill in handling materials 
for which they have felt no need. If one accepts the point 
of view taken by Doctor Dewey, that ‘‘a mode of expres- 
sion separated from something to express is empty and arti- 
ficial, is barren and benumbing,’’* one can but question 
the art imposed upon children. When this principle becomes 
a conviction the art lesson that consists of telling the chil- 
dren first what to draw and then how to draw it cannot be 
justified. 


* Dewey, John, “Imagination and Expression,” p. 7, Teachers College Bul- 
Zetin, March 1, 1919. 


I 


2 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


If education is growth,* and if growth implies increasing 
ability to express oneself through different media, then our 
art training must provide for growth in expression through 
the use of materials. Doctor Dewey has said: “We have 
plenty of glorification of Art and of the importance of artistic 
training, but we have almost no definite scientific attempts 
to translate the artistic process over into terms of its psychical 
machinery—that is, of the mental processes which occasion 
and which effect such expression.” 

This changed conception of art training has brought to 
the teacher of little children the problem of how to evaluate 
their early expressions and how to use them as a means to 
further growth in expression. 


* Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, chap. IV. (Macmillan.) 


II 
ART EXPERIENCES IN CHILD LIFE 


What “mental processes”? have children which occasion 
and which effect art expression? What experiences have little 
children which cause them to feel the need for art media? 

The story experiences of every child call for art media 
and art expression. The small boy explains to unseeing adults 
that his puzzling arrangement of lines tells the story of the 
Ginger Bread Boy. He draws Jack and the Bean Stalk with 
all its thrilling episodes. He makes the chairs and beds for 
the Three Bears, and models the bowls from which they ate 
their bread and milk. 

His social experiences are interpreted and assimilated 
through the use of materials. He relives the circus by mak- 
ing the animals, the circus wagons, the tents, the rings, the 
ring-master and his performers. He draws and constructs 
to express his experiences in travelling. The train, the boat, 
and the automobile form centres around which he groups a 
great variety of observations. His experiences at home, at 
school, in the theatre, in the market, in the shopping district, 
and in the park are reinforced by means of motor expression. 

Perhaps the play experiences occasion the richest expres- 
sions in early life. The impulse to play store necessitates 
constructing and outfitting the store and modelling fruits 
and vegetables or other wares to sell. Playing with dolls 
excites him to surround the dolls with comforts similar to his 
own, and he makes a house. The house must be furnished. 
He makes chairs and tables and beds. He weaves rugs. He 

3 


4 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


models dishes. He takes cloth and makes curtains for the 
windows and linens for the beds and for the dining-table. 
He decorates the walls, paints the floors, and adds his own 
touch of enrichment to each article of the equipment. As 
his social experience grows to include life of other lands and 
other times, he relives those experiences in play. He plays 
Indian. He makes himself Indian clothes and decorates him- 
self and his clothes with Indian symbols. He provides him- 
self with a wigwam and with the crude implements necessary 
to Indian life. He makes Indian pottery and decorates it. 

The child’s emotional experiences also call for expression. 
John comes into school eager to get his crayons to show the 
rainbow he has seen. Mary comes charmed with the sight 
of the balloon-man’s wares, and delights in expressing the 
feeling in spots of brilliant color. 

Are art principles involved in these crude attempts? In 
the drawing of Jack and the Bean Stalk and the Three 
Bears we find the need for the principles of proportion. In 
the modelling of the dishes for the house and in the decora- 
tion of the Indian pottery we find need for the principles of 
art structure. Race experience includes knowledge and skills 
which have been evolved through repeated attempts to gain 
satisfactory expression. Such knowledge and skills should 
assist the child as he finds himself dissatisfied with his own 
work and unable without help to improve it. The child, for 
example, who struggles in vain attempting to show distance 
in his drawing will find satisfaction in a few simple principles 
of perspective. In planning his house, an understanding of 
the elementary principles of rhythm, balance, and harmony 
will facilitate expression if such understanding comes to the 
child when he feels its need. 


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ART EXPERIENCES IN CHILD LIFE 5 


The accumulated art experiences of the race will then 
afford valuable help to the child in the expression of his early 
experiences. But ‘“‘education is growth.” Do these activities 
lead to richer and broader experiences? Do the use of materials 
and the knowledge of principles provide for growth? 

Let us follow the development of the drawing activity with 
a view of finding possibilities of growth. The child may begin 
with crude attempts at explaining Jack and the Bean Stalk 
and the Three Bears. Each time he draws he is so directed 
that he feels a little more confidence in the ability to express, 
and gains a little more power in the use of his medium. The 
knowledge of principle and the skill with the medium that 
he gains in drawing Red Feather will be used and added to 
in drawing the Eskimo Twins; that in turn will aid him 
more satisfactorily to express the escapades of Robin Hood 
and his band. The same principles that freed his expression 
of these stories will permit him to feel unhampered when he 
has maturer ideas to express. He readily uses his pencil as a 
means of showing the architect what he wishes. He sketches 
easily and naturally to aid his verbal expression. 

The same principle of rhythm that the child uses in the 
decoration of Indian pottery may help him to design a book- 
cover for the Story of Knighthood, and later adequately to 
express himself in the furnishing and arrangement of his 
house. 

As the child grows, the ‘‘mental processes” which occasion 
and which effect expression become more complex and de- 
mand more skill for the attainment of satisfactory expression. 
In order to liberate these expressions and meet the increased 
demands he must be supplied with the race experiences, or 
the ‘‘artistic process.” 


Tit 


THE STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
ARTISTIC PROCESS : 


What can we learn about the development of the “‘artistic 
process” by observing little children? Let us give the small 
child paper, a material that is new to him. He rattles it, 
crumples it, twists or tears it. There is no evidence of his 
attempt to use it as a medium of expression. We then put 
clay at his disposal. He rolls it, kneads it, breaks it into 
small pieces, but still there is no expression. He greets each 
new material with an attitude of “What are you?” not 
“What can [ do with you?” He proceeds to get acquainted. 
Observation shows that little children delight in the explora- 
tion of a medium. They show great interest and satisfaction 
in the mere activity of sawing wood, driving nails, or tearing 
paper. We name this period in experimenting or experiencing, 
“‘the stage of manipulation,” because at this time the child 
is mainly interested in the activity. We observe different 
children handling a new material to see how long the manip- 
ulative stage lasts, and find that it varies with individuals; 
some children begin almost immediately to make something, 
while others spend a long time playing with a material with- 
out any apparent purpose. 

This stage is generally thought of as characteristic of little 
children, but observation has shown that older children and 
adults pass through the same period, shorter in duration, 
but affording the same acquaintance with materials; they 
daub paint, they roll clay, apparently aimlessly, until they 

6 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTISTIC PROCESS 7 


arrive at the idea of using the material as a medium of ex- 
pression. 

After this period of apparently aimless activity in folding, 
creasing, and tearing the paper, the child in his play finds 
need for a lion. His large piece of crumpled brown wrapping- 
paper serves as his lion. He crumples another piece for a 
tiger, and soon has a forest full of animals. What is the differ- 
ence between this activity and that which takes place during 
the stage of manipulation? The masses of crumpled paper 
that he calls animals may look no more like animals than 
the masses he tosses aside in the manipulative stage. He is 
beginning to use material to satisfy needs. He models from 
clay crude shapes which have no apparent resemblance to 
form. At the end of a work period one boy showed a lump 
of clay that indicated that he was in the manipulative stage. 
He volunteered that he had made a bathtub and pointed 
out the sides, the bottom, the faucets, and shower. During 
this stage the child draws remarkable pictures telling his 
stories. We look at them and, seeing only meaningless daubs, 
are astonished at the wealth of ideas the explanation dis- 
closes. He has slight interest in making his pictures resemble 
the objects they represent at this stage of his development. 

We can designate this second period as the “stage of sym- 
bolism.” His drawings are mere symbols or signs which 
stand for the objects, and not reproductions of them. The 
symbolic stage is a step in advance of the manipulative stage 
in that the child is using his material as a means of expression. 
He is giving significance to everything he does. He is un- 
hampered by thoughts of how he does it. He is interested 
only in the expression. Shall we allow such disregard of 
technique? Doctor Dewey helps us to understand and evalu- 


8 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


ate this stage. He says: ‘‘There is crudity, lack of proportion, 
lack of qualities of structure and form; hence symbolism 
serves as a sign, not as a conveyance. It serves to stimulate, 
to vivify; its main value is reactive, freeing the child and giv- 
ing him help upon his own imagery. It must at first be Judged 
from this standpoint, its liberating power. Once the child’s 
imagery is awakened, then does his expression become easy, 
become a delight, become varied. The ship, the house, the 
tree are mechanical and formal and must be clothed in human 
form to excite interest; but as soon as the child has acquired 
the habit of vivifying and liberating his image through ex- 
pression, then a return may take place to the original form.”’* 
We recognize here that the return to the original form has 
been one of our early stumbling-blocks. What shall we do 
with the boy who modelled the unrecognizable bathtub? 
He is just out of the manipulative stage, with no freedom of 
expression. Shall we say: “But it doesn’t look like a bath- 
tub! What could you do to make a better bathtub?” Or 
shall we say: ‘“‘What else can you make to go with the bath- 
tub?” Which suggestion will at this time be more likely to 
broaden his field of expression? In our eagerness to see the 
children do “creditable” work we have failed to recognize 
the importance of the symbolic stage. Instead of strength- 
ening the instinctive, spontaneous expression, we allow it to 
be crushed through the inhibition that results from imposing 
technique before there is a conscious need for it. 

Later the boy who paints the remarkable symbolic pictures 
asks us how “‘to make a bear.’ He cannot finish his picture 
because he cannot paint a bear. Another boy wants to know 


* Dewey, John, “Psychology of Drawing,” Teachers College Bulletin, March 
I, IQIQ. 





PLATE IT. Children’s work showing three stages. 


rand 2. Manipulative Stage—‘‘meaningless daubs.”’ 

3 and 4. Symbolic Stage—pictures have meaning but are illegible unless explained. No. 
“House, street-car, and stocking in front of barber shop.” No. 4. “ Giant in Castle.” * 

5 and 6. Realistic Stage—pictures convey ideas. No. 5. Child tells what he did on vacation. 
No. 6. Child describes Indian warfare. 


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DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTISTIC PROCESS 9 


how he can make the wheels turn on the wagon he is making. 
We recognize that a return to original form has taken place. 
He is beginning at this stage to express himself in terms of 
actual facts and real situations. His expressions now are not 
mere symbols for his images legible only to himself, but are 
beginning to “serve as a conveyance” through which those 
images may be communicated to others. We call this period 
the “realistic stage’’ because here there is the beginning of 
“return to original form.” Here we find the beginnings of 
improvement in the form of expression. The child now feels 
the need of help in technique, and this help leads on to richer 
expressions. We find that just as giving technique before the 
child is ready for it crushes his expression, so the withholding 
of the technique when he is ready for it hampers his expression. 

In observing many children at work with materials and 
noting their progress we are unable to distinguish a definite 
step from stage to stage. Transition is gradual. However, 
thinking of the definite stages through which children pass 
in the use of materials helps us to direct them more intelli- 
gently. 

Having observed little children handle material and hav- 
ing in mind the contribution of Doctor Dewey, I observed a 
lesson in water-color taught in the first grade as prescribed 
by a State course of study in art. It was the first time the 
children had seen water-color. ‘‘Do not touch materials 
until ready to begin. Put water on blue cake and paint sky. 
Mix green and paint grass. After it dries the teacher will 
tell you what to paint next.” Is it surprising that our art 
training has failed to develop ability for self-expression ? 


IV 
EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES IN CHILD LIFE 


How can we help the child to grow in ability to express 
himself through the use of materials? When the child feels 
the need of the “‘race experience,” lack of it will inhibit rather 
than encourage his expression. As we look at his work we 
feel helpless because of its crudity. There is to us apparent 
need for so many principles! Where shall we begin? 

Modern biology, psychology, and sociology have made 
many contributions which will help to clarify our ideas of 
the needs of little children and guide us in our effort to pro- 
vide for this growth. The biologist has given us enlightening 
facts concerning the child’s physical development: * 


(1) Training is harmful when it precedes the development 
of the power to be trained. Training should, there- 
fore, be given as the need for it arises and is felt by 
the children. 

(2) Physical and mental development are bound together; 
hence thinking and hand-work are closely related. 

(3) Little children cannot remain still for a long time. 
Therefore, situations should be provided that en- 
courage free bodily activity. 

(4) A condition of satisfaction is essential for development. 


The psychologist also has revealed facts from which we 
may arrive at conclusions concerning the provisions for 
growth: f 


* Herbert S. Jennings, Suggestions of Modern Science Concerning Education, 
pp. I-50. (Macmillan.) 
t John Dewey, How We Think. (Heath.) 


Io 


EDUCATIONAL PRINCIPLES IL 


(1) The educative process must start with and utilize the 
child’s native equipment of instincts, emotions, and 
capacities. 

(2) Thinking takes place only in the presence of a problem 
and involves three steps: 

(a) Presence of a problem; 
(6) Search for means of solution; 
(c) Testing solution. 


(3) The school should provide situations which will give 
opportunity to experience and supply problems, 
recognizing that: 

(a) Different children will solve the same problem in 
different ways; 

(b) The problems provided for must be such as will 
lead to growth and development; 

(c) The span of attention of little children is short. 


The sociologist has shown that if an individual is to take 
his place as a member of a democratic group he must have: 


(1) Ability to use individual liberty and to respect the 
rights of others; 

(2) Ability to give and take constructive criticism; 

(3) Ability to initiate; 

(4) Ability in leadership and “followship.” 


How may we use our observations of the development of 
the ‘‘artistic process” and the contributions of modern science 
in so choosing and handling the material that children need 
for activities that we may promote growth in expression? 


V 
MATERIALS SUITED TO CHILD EXPERIENCES 


We must first use our observations and the educational 
principles cited in making a satisfactory selection of materials. 
We have observed little children using pasteboard, wood, 
yarn, raffia, reed, cloth, clay, plasticine, pencil, crayon, and 
paint. Some of these materials are better fitted to the needs 
of little children than others. The problem is: How shall we 
select? On what principles is selection based? By means of 
standards based on the principles which underlie the child’s 
physical, mental, and social development, we may evaluate 
the materials. For example we may ask ourselves: 


(rt) Does the material provide for free bodily activity 
through large work and discourage “‘little, intricate” 
work that inhibits free movement? 

(2) Does its use promote the condition of satisfaction? 

(3) Does it allow the child to begin “where he is” and 
utilize his native equipment? 

(4) Does it provide problems the solution of which will 
lead on to further growth? 

(5) Does it provide for quick work? 

(6) Does it provide desirable social situations? 


Let us apply these principles in the selection and rejection 
of different materials for early education 

Here are our modelling materials—clay and plasticine. 
Are they suitable materials? Which one is better? In ob- 


I2 


MATERIALS SUITED TO EXPERIENCES 13 


serving children model we note that a plastic material readily 
lends itself to expression. The children enjoy it. Its use af- 
fords large free work; there is opportunity for growth in 
expression. It provides for quick work; through its use there 
is opportunity for forming desirable social habits. In order 
to decide whether clay or plasticine is better for little chil- 
dren, we observed the continued use of the two materials. 
The children showed a preference for clay. They did not like 
the slippery feel of plasticine. Its use did not bring the same 
degree of satisfaction, because plasticine does not harden. 
Plasticine encourages small work. Because of the greater 
satisfaction in the use of clay and its encouragement to larger 
work, we decided that clay is a better modelling material 
than plasticine and that it is well suited to the needs of little 
children. 

We made similar observations with respect to paper and 
pasteboard. Paper is not substantial enough to permit con- 
struction of large objects that are usable. Since it is perisha- 
ble there is much danger that the article will be ruined in 
the process of manufacture. Pasteboard is substantial enough 
for construction, but children have difficulty in cutting, fold- 
ing, and fastening it together. The children found satisfac- 
tion in using pasteboard boxes for construction work and 
discovered that almost everything they wished to make 
was boxlike in form. 

Wood is a good medium. It is substantial, provides for 
use of all the muscles, and children enjoy it. It provides for 
growth in that it affords problems for thinking and situations 
for desirable social development. 

Among the weaving materials, raffia and reed are quite 
perishable in the hands of little children. Their use involves 


14 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


rather intricate work. Yarn also is too fine for a weaving ma- 
terial. Roving is large enough to encourage large work, 
and enables the weaver to accomplish much in a short time. 

Cloth and crepe paper are used by the children in making 
their costumes. Crepe paper is practical only for temporary 
costuming. If given a few suggestions, children can use it 
very effectively. Children find much need for cloth in their 
activities. After observing the handling of it by little chil- 
dren we conclude that it is a good material for little children 
if it is handled in such a way as to avoid ‘“‘small” work. 

Since children demand mediums for pictorial representa- 
tion, they should be provided with that means of expression. 
Paper cutting and tearing is a satisfactory means of expres- 
sion. Although it is generally believed that children crave 
pencil drawing, the pencil is too fine a tool for the small 
child’s use. He uses that medium because he is familiar with 
it, for the average child has become acquainted with the 
pencil early in life. He readily gives up the pencil when a 
more appropriate drawing medium is provided. Crayon en- 
courages larger work than the pencil and provides color. 
The drawing medium, however, that best satisfies the child’s 
needs for expression is opaque water paint and large paper. 
It provides opportunity for large work; it enables quick work, 
and the color is an additional satisfaction. 

Children feel the need of many different materials in the 
expression of their experiences. ‘Different children will 
solve the same problem in different ways.”’ Members of one 
group will at the same time be using a variety of materials. 
However, for convenience we shall consider one material at 
a time. 


VI 
CLAY 


Early Activities Related to Clay.—Children instinctively 
discover the possibilities of plastic materials. They roll in 
the snow, make prints of themselves, their hands, and their 
feet, and later make snow men and forts. They respond to 
the ‘‘feel”’ of mud with a similar series of activities. They dig 
their toes in the mud; they make impressions in it and equip 
a store with pies, cakes, and candy. They know the joy of 
the feeling of something plastic. 

Joy in Clay.—Clay is the perfect plastic material. It is a 
sort of “‘supermud”’ which sticks together when it is wet and 
dries hard without crumbling. Clay allows the child to 
“draw in three dimensions,” unhampered by the puzzling 
process of representing three dimensions on two. Surely in 
the use of clay the “condition of satisfaction” is present! 
The children who have been fortunate enough to have expe- 
rienced the joys of making mud pies rejoice at finding “mud” 
that sticks together while they model and which will not 
fall to pieces when it dries. The children who have missed 
the “mud-sand-water”’ joys greet the new material with 
such delight as can be understood only by the initiated. 

First Stage: Manipulative.—Satisfied with its value as a 
medium, we share the children’s excitement when they have 
clay for the first time. They are stimulated by the new ma- 
terial. We are eager to see what they are going to do with 

15 


16 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


it. Mary pokes hers rather gingerly and registers surprise 
as she sees her finger-print left in the clay; she tries her fist 
and her knuckles and then feels well enough acquainted to 
pick it up with both hands, continuing to put it through its 
paces. Meanwhile, Bobby is gleefully breaking up his lump 
of clay and flattening the pieces on the table with the palm 
of his hand. Dick picks off small lumps and rolls them into 
little round balls. The children continue to roll, pick to pieces, 
flatten, and dent the clay, but no child seems to be making 
anything. 

Progression to Symbolic Stage.—Does this mean that the 
children are not ready for clay? They are interested in it, 
but their interest lies in the activity and not the use of the 
material as a means of expression. We recognize the manip- 
ulative stage and let them continue their explorations and 
investigations. After a time we take one of Dick’s little round 
balls and show the children the marbles he is making. We 
remark that Bobby is making cookies, and we wonder if Mary 
is making a bowl. Many of the children take the sugges- 
tion and begin to make cookies, doughnuts, cakes, marbles, 
balls, and apples. Some of the children continue simply to 
manipulate the clay. Some children rapidly pass through 
the manipulative stage; others are for a long time interested 
only in the activity. 

The children are on different levels. What can we do to 
help them grow? ‘Once the child’s imagery becomes loosened, 
then does his expression become easy, become a delight, be- 
come varied.”’ How can we help the ‘‘child’s imagery to be- 
come loosened’? During the discussion that follows the work 
period, we can comment on the ideas expressed. The children 
can look for different things that have been made. Some of 


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CLAY 17 


the articles made are so ‘‘far from the original form” that 
they must be interpreted. The sculptor does this proudly. 
We do not comment on the fact that there is no resemblance 
to original form but, recognizing that at this time ‘“sym- 
bolism serves as a sign, not as a conveyance,” we help “loosen 
his expression” by asking him what he is going to make next. 
He is going to make a garage to keep his car in, a bowl for 
his fruit, or a track for his train. 

Some children readily relate experiences; others are timid 
and hesitate to talk. Some children always have more ideas 
than they have time to express; others seem to lack ideas. 
The child who persists in playing with clay instead of making 
something can be helped either by asking him at the begin- 
ning of the period what he is going to make or by giving 
meaning to something he is modelling which has no mean- 
ing to him—as, “John is making a castle,” or ‘‘Do you sup- 
pose John is going to make sticks of candy?” We may help 
him by a suggestion, taking the cue from his interests. John 
has told the class about beehives which he has seen on a 
visit to a farm. ‘‘Could you make them in clay to show us 
how they look?” ‘This may lead to reliving other farm ex- 
periences. 

Basis for Judgment in Symbolic Stage.—At this time the 
child is satisfied with ‘“‘a sign for the thing signified.” He is 
not ready for “improvement in technique.” What then is our 
basis for judging growth? How can we find out whether he is 
progressing? “The main value of expression during this 
stage is reactive, freeing the child and giving him help upon 
his own imagery. It must at first be judged from this stand- 
point, its liberating power.” The test for growth at this time 
is: “Does John have more ideas and does he express them 


18 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


more readily?’? One boy spent much time in the manipula- 
tive stage, his power of expression developing very slowly. 
However, at the end of a month he showed no lack either of 
ideas or of freedom to express them. Here is positive evidence 
of growth. Another boy modelled an apple before the first 
boy was out of the manipulative stage. He modelled an apple 
again and again. At the end of a month, when he was given 
clay, he modelled an apple. His technique was better than 
that of the first boy, but there was no growth, no “loosening 
of imagery.” 

Return to Original Form, or Realistic Stage.—Recognizing 
the manipulative stage as preliminary to, and the symbolic 
stage as the beginning of expression, what is the next stage in 
growth? “The reaction ought to go to the point of forming 
a new mode of vision and allowing this new mode of experi- 
ence to control his motor expression; otherwise, after a cer- 
tain point is passed, slovenly habits both of seeing and of 
moving are acquired.” He has been “liberating his image 
through expression’; now a return may take place to the 
“original form,” the realistic stage. 

Need for Technique.—The child is now ready to test his 
articles by more mature judgments based on observation 
and use. He now wishes to make better apples, better cakes, 
and better candlesticks. He is now hampered not so much 
for lack of ideas to express as for lack of power over his ma- 
terial to express satisfactorily his ideas. What does he need? 
He needs a working knowledge of the “race experience’’— 
a knowledge of how—the beginning of technique. Our basis 
for discussion now is not primarily: ‘What can you make 
to go with this,” but ‘‘ How can you make this better?” 

Improving Technique through Suggestions Regarding 


CLAY 19 


Utility——Gaining better technique is a slow process. Sug- 
gestions for improvements are absorbed very gradually. 
What help in technique does the child need first? What stand- 
ards for judgment will appeal to him? In order to give satis- 
faction an object must ‘‘adequately embody the idea.” If 
the child needs a bowl to hold fruit, the first test of the bowl 
is: “‘ Does it satisfactorily hold the fruit?” The first suggestion 
is for the improvement of the feature that obviously keeps 
it from fulfilling its function as a bowl. For instance, the first 
essential for a bowl is that it can hold something; (2) that it 
have a flat bottom; (3) that its sides be of uniform thickness; 
(4) that it have a smooth surface; (5) that it be symmetrical; 
(6) that it have satisfying enrichment. 

All suggestions for improvement should be, then, on the 
basis of utility and in terms of the child’s appreciation. For 
instance, it must be clear to the child that every suggestion 
is made in order that he may make a better bowl. A child 
can readily see that the bowl he has made with a round bottom 
will tip over easily. He will be eager to improve the bowl by 
making a flat bottom. Though he may not have arrived in 
appreciation at the point where he feels the necessity of 
having his bowl of uniform thickness or of smooth surface, 
experience with his finished product teaches him that the bowl 
will break where the clay is thin. Still later he desires enrich- 
ment and adds decoration. 

Improvement through Knowledge of Principles—An un- 
derstanding of the principles of art facilitates satisfactory 
expression. In proportion to the children’s ability to appre- 
ciate them, some attention to such art principles as propor- 
tion, balance, and rhythm will help the child to ‘‘more ade- 
quately embody the idea.” Children have shown that they 


20 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


feel the need for proportion in remarks they make about 
objects: “‘The candlestick looks as if it might upset.” By 
making the base larger the small modeller establishes better 
proportion in the candlestick. But proportion is the satis- 
factory adjustment of parts; and, by making the base larger, 
the child recognizes greater satisfaction in his candlestick, be- 
cause it can hold a candle without danger of upsetting. 

A child manifests a sense of balance in a desire to make 
things symmetrical. He objects to an object being ‘“‘lop- 
sided.” He criticises a handle that is so large that it looks 
as if it would upset the cup, and he finds satisfaction in a 
decoration that ‘‘fits,” or rhymes with, the article it decorates. 

Desire for decoration comes very early in child life. On 
clay products decoration may be: 


(x) Scratched on with nails or hairpins; 

(2) Pressed in: pumpkin-seeds, acorns, nail-heads, screws, 
thumb-prints, pencils, large beads, repeated in a 
unit to form borders; 

(3) Applied in color. 


Children desire improvement in the surface of clay. Clay 
can be made smooth when wet by rubbing the surface with 
wet fingers; when dry by lightly sandpapering. The bottom 
and edges of dishes may be made smooth by pressing lightly 
on a flat surface. 

Children should be encouraged to model from the mass. 
It is more direct. The coil method belongs to a later stage. 
This help in technique is given as the need is felt by the 
child. All improvement is based on ‘“‘fitness to purpose” 
and proceeds from the obvious to the remote. Our first help, 
then, is concerning gross mistakes. Gradually rising standards 


CLAY 21 


necessitate additional technique to produce the desired re- 
finements. 

Providing for Growth through Art Activities—With the 
needed principles of technique and the underlying facts of 
the child’s biological, psychological, and sociological devel- 
opment in mind, how can we provide for his growth along all 
these lines? In order that he may have wholesome physical 
growth, we encourage the feeling of happiness in activity and 
encourage large work. We provide for mental growth by 
allowing the child to utilize his native equipment. We en- 
deavor to have every child begin “where he is”; and, by help- 
ing him to realize his problem, to arrive at a solution and to 
test his solution, we lead him toward higher expression. 

Providing for Social Growth.—How can we provide for the 
development of the desired social habits through the use of 
clay? The social habits that can be developed in the use of 
clay are based on “‘individual liberty and respect for the rights 
of others,” and on giving and taking constructive criticism. 
A group of children decided on their own rules of social con- 
duct. They decided that, first, they must work quietly at 
their own places so as not to disturb others; secondly, that 
they must return to the crock the clay they do not use in 
order that it may be in good condition for others; thirdly, 
that they must protect their clothes, the tables, and floor 
(they made aprons for themselves and brought new papers 
for the tables where oilcloth was not provided); fourthly, 
that they ought to protect the fragile finished work of others 
as each does his own. 

Class Discussion of Children’s Work.—The discussion of 
clay work provides opportunities for giving and taking con- 
structive criticism, for group work, and freedom to choose 


22 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


work, and provides for initiative, leadership, and “‘follow- 
ship.” 

A very interesting discussion about clay work was observed 
in a first grade. The children who were working with clay 
grouped themselves to talk about their finished work. The 
first question of the teacher showed us that the children 
were out of the symbolic stage and were now in the realistic 
stage. The question was: ‘‘Who can find the best work this 
morning?’’ It was decided that John’s candlestick was the 
best. “I am wondering why you say John’s candlestick is 
the best.” ‘‘Because it is smooth and because it won’t up- 
set when it has a candle in it.”’ As the children had discussed 
these points before and had had help in their technique, the 
teacher asked them to look for other results which had those 
qualities. They found many that showed definite improve- 
ment. The teacher then asked John if he could do anything 
to make his candlestick better. He said that he had tried to 
make a handle on it, but it wouldn’t hold. Several others 
said that they had had trouble with handles. Here was a 
group problem providing the next step in their growth. 

Handles cause many tragedies in clay work. Handles may 
be made “‘holdable,” if made large enough and with sufficient 
contact. To make handles, roll a piece of clay to the right size 
and flatten the ends. Dip fingers in water and moisten clay. 
Bend the shape of the handle and attach with points of 
contact wet. Be sure that the ends of the handle are flat- 
tened enough to give a large surface of contact for attach- 
ment. 

The teacher then showed the group how to roll clay and 
make handles. The discussion was so conducted that the 
children were constantly discovering problems, suggesting 


CLAY 23 


means of solution, testing their solutions. There was an ad- 
mirable readiness to give and take constructive criticism. 

We noticed that during the discussion the teacher recog- 
nized that the children had varying abilities and skills. Re- 
gardless of how crudely work was done, she recognized it as 
worth while if it was the best the child could do. She put the 
stamp of her approval, with the “why,” on the best work. 
She showed the backward child where he had made his mis- 
takes and encouraged him to try again. As a result of the dis- 
cussion all the children felt a wholesome pride in what they 
had done and a desire to improve it. 

Basis of Judgment for Growth in the Realistic Stage.— 
How can we tell whether the child is growing? Our test for 
growth during the realistic stage is not only a test for growth 
in ideas but also a test in growth in control over the medium. 
Growth necessitates the child’s doing his best work all the 
time. After he has added appreciation of and knowledge of 
how to make smooth surfaces on his clay work, he should 
show that finish on all his work. In the same way each new 
skill he acquires must be used. His standards must grow 
with his skill, otherwise his skill depreciates through disuse. 
A kindergarten teacher went into a first grade where she saw 
one of her “last year’s boys” modelling a candlestick. She 
was amazed. ‘‘Why, George, you made a better candlestick 
than that last year!’ George had not grown in the use of 
his material. What was the matter with George? Through 
lack of additional technique, as it was needed, “slovenly 
habits of seeing’ had been acquired. The children as well 
as the teacher can realize that they are growing. A first- 
grade boy was modelling one day when a visitor approached 
him and asked him if he had done anything else that she 


24 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


_ could see. He showed her a bowl which he said wasn’t very 
good, because he did it a long time ago, when he didn’t know 
much about clay. — 

Special Problems.—When we allow children to develop 
naturally from their own levels, special problems are met in 
those children who do not “‘run true to form.” Such cases 
are interesting both from the standpoint of ‘‘What causes 
the difference?’’ and ‘‘What shall we do about it?” 

During tne term a new boy came into our second-grade 
group. He said he had worked with clay before. He carefully 
modelled a very good rabbit. The next day he modelled a rab- 
bit. He apparently had no special interest in rabbits, though 
he continued to model them. He said that he had a dog, so 
we suggested that he model a dog; he said that he did not 
know how. Investigation showed that the first time the boy 
had ever had clay he was taught through carefully dictated 
steps to model a rabbit. It had never occurred to him that 
he might make anything unless he had first been shown how. 
Thus, instead of “loosening his imagery” and liberating his 
expression, his first work with clay had paralyzed his ability 
to express, because technique for which he was not ready 
was given him. Our first problem was to get him to express 
many different ideas about child life in Holland, which was 
his chief interest at the time. Although he showed need of 
technique, discussion suggested what else he might make 
rather than that he improve technique. ‘Once the child’s 
imagery becomes loosened, then does his expression become 
easy, become a delight, become varied.” Later, when he read- 
ily expressed ideas in clay, he was helped by technique toward 
a more satisfactory expression. 

What shall we do to help the child who always looks 


CLAY 25 


around to see what others are making and then “follows 
suit”? Children are always more or less imitative, but the 
child who never has anything of his own to tell has at some 
time been made to feel that his own ideas are not worth tell- 
ing. Suggestions based upon the child’s interests, and appre- 
ciation of his own original work, emphasizing the merit of the 
work because it is his own rather than because it is well 
done, will help him to gain confidence in himself. 

A problem quite common is that of the child who seems to 
persist in the symbolic stage. He has many ideas to express, 
but is satisfied with the technique used on his crude sketches 
and contented to explain with words what they mean. This 
is the result of lack of help in technique when he first needed 
it. He has returned to original form but lacks technique to 
meet his needs, and as a result “slovenly habits both of seeing 
and of moving have been acquired.” His standards can be 
raised by observing clay work done by others and by having 
a special reason for modelling an article very well. For in- 
stance, the appreciation of and desire for better technique 
often result from making a gift which must be well done in 
order to please the recipient. 

Care of Clay.—The quality of work is largely influenced 
by materials. In order to insure satisfaction in its use, clay 
not only must be of good quality but also must be kept in 
proper condition. It may be purchased wet, ready for use 
or dry, in the form of flour or brick. Both flour and brick must 
be soaked in water and carefully kneaded before being ready 
for use. Wet clay is better, since no preparation is necessary. 
Clay should be purchased at the nearest pottery. It saves 
money in transportation and lessens the possibilities of its 
drying out before it arrives. If it is shipped in air-tight barrels 


26 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


the year’s supply can be cared for in the barrels. Otherwise 
zinc-lined boxes made air-tight or tubs with covers should 
be provided. 

For taking care of clay in small quantities for use by the 
children, an earthen crock with cover should be used. The 
crock should be of the short and wide proportion rather than 
the tall and narrow, since it is more convenient in getting the 
clay out for distribution. Some teachers prefer a small gar- 
bage can to a crock. The can may be painted to harmonize 
inconspicuously with the room. It has a tight cover and has 
the advantage of being easier to move on account of its 
lighter weight and its handle. 

It is very important to have the clay of the proper con- 
sistency. If it is too wet it sticks to the fingers. Effort to 
model it results in an unhappy sticky mass in which the chil- 
dren find themselves helpless, with all the feelings of being 
“stuck in the mud.” If attempt is made to model when the 
clay is too dry, one discovers that it is difficult to mould 
and that it cracks and crumbles. 

Trying a bit of the clay by rolling it in the hands will give 
the “feel.” If it is too wet the cover should be removed and 
the clay allowed to dry; if too dry add water. It is well to 
punch holes in the clay with a small stick in order that the 
water may get to the bottom of the crock. Otherwise, when 
the clay is of good consistency on top, one may find it too 
hard at the bottom. When the clay is the right consistency 
for modelling, it may be kept so by keeping it covered with a 
damp piece of heavy cloth, canvas, ticking, or heavy muslin. 

Very good modelling clay can be purchased for one cent 
a pound shipped in air-tight five-hundred-pound barrels. 
Four pounds per child per year will provide sufficient for the 


CLAY 27 


average kindergarten or lower primary group. The amount 
on hand should always be sufficient to supply each child with 
a lump approximating a pound in weight in order to encour- 
age large work. Hardened clay can be soaked and used again. 
Oilcloth should be provided for the tables. Hands are the 
best tools. If the children feel the need of tools, they can 
make themselves tools from flat sticks and hairpins. Clay 
tools make possible more ‘“‘finish”’ than is desired or appre- 
ciated by little children. 

In ordering supplies for clay, paint should be included, as 
children often wish to paint the things they model. Ordinary 
water-color is satisfactory if very little water is used. Show- 
card colors or fresco paints, such as are used for “easel”’ 
painting, are excellent. The color may be preserved by 
shellacking. Shellac should not be too thick; it is thinned 
with denatured alcohol. Enamelac may be used. It does not 
require shellac. Turpentine is needed to thin enamelac and 
to clean paint brushes used in enamelac. The clay must al- 
ways be thoroughly dry before paint is applied. It is not 
practica! to attempt firing of children’s clay work. 

From clay, children make marbles, beads, cookies, cakes, 
dolls, candlesticks, dishes, baskets, nests, paper-weights, 
lollypops, animals, fruits, and vegetables, pen-trays, pen-and- 
pencil holders, files (clay base with nail upright), vases, clay- 
covered bottles, clay-covered test-tubes, pincushions (bowl 
having cotton covered with silk glued inside), bowls, ash- 
trays, hatpin holders, clay birds (on sticks as decoration), 
clay tops, and sun-dials. 

Projects may be repeated with added value. Children may 
do again in the first grade what they have done in kinder- 
garten. They are just as interested as when they do it the 


28 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


first time; however, to be of value, the work must show im- 
provement in technique as an indication of growth. 

In consideration of its adaptability to the needs of little 
children, in that its use permits children to begin at their own 
level and grow in expression, one must agree with a very suc- 
cessful primary teacher who says that clay is one of our 
very best mediums for the art expression of little children. 


VIL 
WOOD 


Every one who has observed children at play realizes 
their satisfaction in making things from wood. In recogni- 
tion of this pleasure the adult usually provides the child with 
a set of miniature tools. The elaborate chest of miniature 
tools of every variety and description appeals to the adult 
who knows carpenter’s tools. It looks attractive, and attrac- 
tiveness is about its only excuse for being, for the tools 
themselves are too small for use, and are usually made of 
poor material. These useless little tools have apparently 
been manufactured on the principle that the child should 
be started with a small size of every kind of tool and, as he 
grows, be given larger editions of the same varieties. It re- 
minds one of the old prints showing little children dressed 
in small sizes of grown-ups’ clothes. The evolution of the 
tool-chest ought not to be a procedure from tiny tools to 
“‘man-size”’ tools, but a progression from a few fundamental 
to many intricate tools. The development of standards of 
technique and the development of intricate tools are inter- 
dependent. At first the needs are simple, and only simple 
tools are essential; as better technique is desired, tools that 
enable more accuracy and finer work are required. 

Hammer.—The first tool to be used is undoubtedly the 
hammer. The hammer best adapted to children’s use is a 
small-size regulation claw-hammer. The head should be flat. 
with square edges. A hammer that weighs from three-quar- 
ters to a pound is a good weight. It is not helping the child 

29 


30 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


to give him a light hammer, since the weight of the hammer 
helps to drive the nail. 

Saw.—The saw is the next tool needed. The saw should 
be the smallest-size regulation cross-cut saw, that size as 
made by most firms being 18 inches in length. Saws vary 
in size of teeth as well as in length. A medium saw is required 
for little children; if the teeth are very coarse the saw is too 
hard to operate; if too fine it does not saw fast enough to 
satisfy the child. A No. 8 saw (eight points to the inch) is 
well adapted to the use of little children. A back saw is not 
essential but is very convenient to have. A wooden mitre-box 
might be made in the manual-training department to fit 
the saw. The mitre-box and saw will afford valuable assis- 
tance in making table-legs and chair-legs square, and in saw- 
ing sections of dowelling for wheels. 

Other Tools.—Children often have need for holes in pieces 
of wood. Provision for this can best be made by supplying 
a brace and several sizes of gimlet and dowel bits. A hand 
drill may be used for boring holes less than one-eighth of an 
inch in diameter. Gimlets may be purchased in various sizes 
and may be used successfully if drill or brace and bits cannot 
be furnished. Various sizes of nails should be provided. 
Flat-headed wire nails are best. Brads should be avoided, 
because the child is unable to hit them squarely on the head 
and will bend them before he can drive them into the wood. 
A No. 18 wire nail in sizes three-fourths inch and one inch, 
and No. 16 in sizes one and one-half and two inches, will be 
found most convenient for use. 

Knives, chisels, and planes are tools not adapted to the 
needs of small children. Danger of injury in using these tools 
is only avoided by skill in handling. The finer and more 


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intricate work that is made possible by the use of these tools 
is not demanded by little children. They are satisfied with 
substantial but crude products. 

Children sometimes desire to give an article an additional 
finish after it is nailed together, although they do not antici- 
pate it when they begin to work. For instance, the child be- 
gins to make a wagon from rough boards. He sees no need of 
using a plane to smooth the board before he begins to saw. 
However, after he sees the wagon take form, he is dissatis- 
fied with its roughness. To provide for this desired finish a 
wood file and coarse sandpaper should be added to the equip- 
ment. The sandpaper should be fastened on blocks for use. 

Work-Bench.—A work-bench should be provided. A small- 
sized, standard work-bench, 20 inches by 42 inches and 24 
inches high, is adapted to the needs of little children. The 
price of the bench makes woodwork equipment cost more 
than equipment for some other materials. This need not be 
discouraging, since a very satisfactory work-bench may be 
constructed by the school carpenter. A 14-inch by 2-inch 
oak plank may be nailed securely to 2-inch by 4-inch supports, 
which are nailed to the floor. The length of the plank should 
be determined by the space in the room. If it is a very long 
plank, supports should be placed in the middle as well as at 
the ends. The bench complete should be about twenty-four 
inches high. Large wooden vises should be firmly attached 
at each end of the bench. Wood should always be clamped 
securely in a vise before children saw. Little children cannot 
hold a piece of wood and saw without danger. This bench pro- 
vides for hammering and sawing and has several advantages 
over the standard small-sized bench. It provides more space 
for working; being made of rougher material and simpler in 


32 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


construction, it is in less danger of being ruined, and it there- 
fore allows the child more freedom for his construction work. 

Wood.—Soft wood—white pine, basswood, or poplar—is 
best for children to work with. Hard woods are difficult to 
nail and are likely to split. Basswood is used for small proj- 
ects, and should be one-quarter to five-sixteenths inch 
thick. Pine or poplar should be one-half to seven-eighths 
inch in thickness. Children enjoy making vehicles; in antici- 
pation of this, three-inch dowel rods may be supplied, sec- 
tions of which can be sawed off for wheels. Material 1 inch 
by 1 inch, 1 inch by 2 inches, and 1% inches by 1% inches is 
convenient for axles and table-legs. Scraps of wood from the 
manual-training department, from furniture factories, or lum- 
ber dealers are often available and afford excellent material. 
The size and shape of the pieces of wood suggest things that 
can be made. 

Wood may be painted with ordinary house paint, or it 
may be stained, or painted with the cold-water paints, such 
as children use for painting pictures. 

Habits Necessary to Wood Work.—As tools handled care- 
lessly involve danger of injury, the teacher and children in 
one class as a precaution against accidents decided on the 
following definite practices in regard to the use of tools: 


(x) Children ought always to fasten the wood securely in 
the vise before sawing. (The vise and the saw were 
shown to the children together and their use explained 
in order to help establish the habit of using the vise 
in sawing.) 

(2) ‘Children working at bench should put tools in proper 
place as soon as they finish. 


WOOD 33 


(3) Children should hammer and saw only on the work- 
bench. 


(4) Children should take turns working at the bench. 


(5) Those who are not working must stay away from the 
bench. 


Children understand the necessity of habits for protection 
to themselves and furniture. They take individual responsi- 
bility in establishing these habits. 

The First, or Manipulative, Stage.—What characterizes the 
manipulative stage in working with wood? What do children 
do first when provided with wood and tools? The child’s 
first interest is in the activity of using the tool. He simply 
drives nails into a board. A very small child may continue 
to do this for a long time and then he may accidentally drive 
one nail through to another board, discovering that he can 
nail pieces of wood together. Then he may continue to nail 
pieces of wood together, still without making anything. His 
first acquaintance with the saw is followed by a similar re- 
action. He saws intently, but if asked what he is making, 
he replies: ‘‘ Nothing; I’m sawing.” 

The Second, or Symbolic, Stage.—After the children have 
spent some time satisfying their interest in the activities of 
sawing and hammering, they begin to name their products. 
John had nailed two pieces of wood together, apparently 
without purpose. When asked about it he said it was a boat. 
He explained the parts. They required explanation, since the 
whole expression of the boat was truly symbolic and had 
little resemblance to original form. During the symbolic stage 
children make crude objects which they endow with familiar 
names. The peculiar product which the child calls a house 


34 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


may have none of the qualifications of a real house. The 
things he makes in this stage are not judged by the require- 
ments of actual conditions. 

The Third, or Realistic, Stage.—The symbolic stage persists 
for a long time in the use of paint. But in the case of wood, 
the desire to make things for actual use soon advances the 
child to the realistic stage, when he requires that his product 
satisfy its conventional purpose. His boat must float; his 
house must provide shelter; his truck must accommodate a 
load. His higher standards require more technique. He learns 
to mark and saw the wood for the lengths he needs; he ob- 
serves tables to see how he can put the legs on his table; he 
learns to make wheels that will turn. 

The basis for all suggestions for improvement is utility. 
Using an article shows its weak points and provides problems. 
The solution of these problems provides for mental growth. 
For example, John has made a wagon. When he tries to use 
it he discovers that the wheels will not turn. What can John 
do to make his wagon better? Different methods of improv- 
ing the wheels are suggested. John decides to use a round 
piece of wood for an axle and bore a hole through the centre 
of the wheel to fit it. The solution of one problem often gives 
rise to other problems, which constantly provide for mental 
growth. A problem, search for solution, test of solution 
comprise real growth. 

Opportunity for Social Habits ——But few children can work 
at one time, because there is not sufficient equipment for 
wood-working. Since they have to take turns working at the 
bench, situations are provided for developing the desirable 
social habits of using individual rights and respecting the 
rights of others. There is also opportunity for development 


WOOD 35 


of initiative and of the habit of giving and taking construc- 
tive criticism. Wood-working, furthermore, provides condi- 
tions essential to physical growth in that it involves use of 
the larger muscles, while at the same time it encourages the 
condition of satisfaction. 

During self-directed activities, little children make from 
wood things satisfying the play instinct and things suggested 
from needs that arise in their school life. They frequently 
make vehicles, wagons, carts, automobiles, airplanes, trucks, 
wheelbarrows, boats, and trains; doll-houses and furniture, 
traffic signals, amusement parks, chairs and tables for their 
own use. Various specific circumstances suggest the supply 
of needed articles, as was the case with a group in a second 
grade who wanted more opportunities to paint than one easel 
afforded. They made an easel and stained it like the easel 
provided. So, too, a first-grade group put legs on a box to 
provide a convenient yet safe place to hold their cans of paint 
near the easel. 

Children desire a satisfactory ‘“‘embodiment of the idea’”’ 
in their products. The article must fulfil its function, but the 
requirements are not exacting. It is a mistake to keep a 
child on one project until what he produces is so finished that 
it satisfies an adult’s standard. The span of his interest and 
attention is short, and at this time the quantity of the prod- 
ucts he desires is much better fitted to his needs than the 
quality of the products that the adult desires for him. 


Vil 
CLOTH 


Why do children begin at once to use cloth for a definite 
purpose and spend some time in getting acquainted with 
other materials? A two-year-old baby was observed taking 
towels from the racks and carefully wrapping her dolls. The 
same baby, given clay, simply poked it and rolled it. Children 
have many early experiences with cloth, while their experience 
with other materials is comparatively meagre. When the 
child comes to kindergarten, he finds some strange materials 
with which he must become acquainted; but he has had many 
experiences with cloth before. He knows many of its possibili- 
ties. He has observed many of its uses. He knows that it is 
more substantial than paper. He recognizes various weights 
and textures, not as a classification of textiles but as materials 
from which his clothes are made for summer and winter, and 
as materials from which other articles are made, such as 
towels, table-linen, curtains, and bed-linen. He is not con- 
scious that he knows different kinds of cloth, but, if the cloth 
is shown to him, he says it looks like curtain goods, or over- 
coat goods, or sheets, or dresses. 

It is not at all surprising, then, that kindergarten children 
in their first experience with cloth do not wrinkle or cut it 
aimlessly, but that they at once attempt to make some kind 
of clothes. 

Sewing Not Essential at First——The first use of cloth does 


not necessarily involve sewing. Sewing is a means of fasten- 
36 


CLOTH 37 


ing cloth together, and, while it is undoubtedly in most cases 
the best way, it is not the only way nor the first natural 
process. Often the first need for cloth arises when the child 
makes marbles and needs some way to carry them. He may 
attempt to sew a bag, but he is very likely simply to tie the 
marbles in a piece of cloth. He may feel that his doll needs 
clothes and may recognize that cloth is the best material to 
use, but the first doll dress does not always necessitate sew- 
ing. The most direct and natural way of clothing the doll 
is to wrap it in the cloth. But the child who so dresses his doll 
or the child who ties his marbles in a cloth soon discovers 
that it is a very unsatisfactory way to keep them, and if the 
materials are at hand, he will very likely attempt to sew a 
bag; or, dissatisfied with the doll’s makeshift dress, he will try 
to sew a dress. All of the children have had more or less ex- 
perience in seeing the sewing process. Otherwise there would 
be no reason to expect little children to begin to sew. However, 
in consideration of their former experience, the presence of 
sewing materials will solve their problems as a means of 
making better bags for the marbles or better clothes for the 
doll. 

Materials.—Cloth which is to be used by small children 
should be substantial, but not so heavy as to make sewing 
difficult. Thin unbleached muslin, heavy linen, Japanese 
crepe, and gingham are good. Scrim, voile, and thin, 
“stretchy”? materials are hard to work with because they so 
easily pull out of shape. Heavy, closely woven materials of 
a hard weave, as gabardine, duck, and denim, are not good, 
because they are hard to sew. 

Needles should be coarse, with large eyes. Thread should 
be coarse. Wherever there is any difficulty, needles should 
be threaded for the children. 


38 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


Shortness of Second Stage.—Since sewing is a very utili- 
tarian process the articles the children will make will be 
things they wish to use. Using an article very soon deter- 
mines its weak points and thus makes for improvement. 
This tends to shorten the second stage, where children work 
without any consideration of technique. Therefore, in a 
shorter time than with other materials the children develop 
into the third stage, making things to be recognized by other 
people and working for improved technique. 

Third Stage, Improvement in Technique.—Again, as in 
the case of articles made of clay or of wood, the basis or 
standard for criticism is utility. The first sewing is obviously 
for the purpose of holding two pieces of cloth together. The 
first test is not whether the stitches are even or the seams 
straight but: Does it hold.together? Will the bag hold the 
marbles? If the stitches are so large that the marbles fall 
out, the sewing is unsatisfactory, and in attempting to cor- 
rect the mistake the child is growing in his handling of the 
material. 

Seam.—With the sewing of his first seam the child sees 
the necessity for having the thread fastened at both ends. 
Therefore, to knot the thread before beginning, and to fasten 
the thread by taking several stitches in the same place at the 
end, will be among the first things the child must be shown 
how to do. If the child has difficulty in knotting the thread, 
it should be done for him, as both knotting the thread and 
threading the needle are intricate processes, requiring close 
muscular co-ordination. 

Evolving the Hem.—After the sewing of a straight seam 
to hold the cloth together, the next process needed is hemming. 
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elled edges. To turn up the edge once and sew would take 
care of this. The raw edge on the wrong side should be an- 
other step. It may not be necessary for every child to pass 
through ihe stages of making an article without a hem, and 
then one with a hem of one fold, and then one with a hem of 
two folds, but one or two children should; then the group 
may discuss the problems involved and thus arrive at the so- 
lution—the hem. 

The Use of the Pattern.—The pattern undoubtedly has an 
early place in the child’s work with cloth. It is not fair to 
the child to establish such ideas of materials as would permit 
him to cut ruthlessly and thoughtlessly into cloth and come 
back for more when he finds he has cut too small. However, 
the pattern originally came from an attempt to experiment 
with a more plentiful material in order to save the rarer ma- 
terials. Before the pattern came into existence, cloth was 
ruined. This gave a definite need for experimenting with 
cheaper material. This does not mean that every child in 
the class must ruin a piece of cloth before he sees the neces- 
sity for a pattern, but if one child cuts a dress too small, and 
the members of the sewing group talk it over and with the 
teacher’s help decide upon a way that future misfortune may 
be avoided, the place of patterns will have been definitely 
established. The use of patterns before a need for them is 
clearly felt establishes a perplexing form in sewing that is 
followed only when the child is carefully supervised. 

Use of Pattern in Exchange of Ideas.—In real life patterns 
are used to make possible exchange of ideas as well as for 
economy of cloth. This use of patterns should also be estab- 
lished in the kindergarten. An attitude of passing on dis- 
coveries and new ideas can be started in the exchange of pat- 


40 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


terns which the children make. It is very interesting to watch 
the growth of an idea as it is taken up by one chi'd after an- 
other, each adding his individual touch though attempting 
to copy. 

It is a mistake not to allow the child ample freedom. He 
often creates added problems for himself, the solution of 
which gives valuable training. It is only in this way that the 
child will develop a sense of individual responsibility. The 
individual problems encourage accuracy and the desirable 
attitude of planning ahead. 

Most children can bring clean cloth from discarded cloth- 
ing from home. Old sheets afford large pieces of cloth which 
can be used to advantage. If the material is new and limited 
in amount, the children will see added necessity for careful 
planning and cutting. 

Decoration.—Children like to add decoration to their sew- 
ing. Anything small or complicated should be avoided. 
Yarn may be used in simple stitches. Paint may be used in 
stencils or in block prints to form borders or units. Cloth 
may be appliquéd in units large enough to avoid intricate 
work. 

Things Children Make from Cloth.—Children make from 
cloth articles for themselves and for their dolls. They make 
dolls from muslin, old stockings, underwear, Turkish towel- 
ling, using cotton for stuffing. Accessories and clothes are 
made from corresponding “‘real life” materials. It is always 
well to encourage making things for the child’s own use. It 
provides opportunity for discovering mistakes through actual 
use, and it also encourages larger work than is possible in 
making doll clothes. The need for aprons in the kindergarten 
work provides one of the first opportunities for sewing. Chil- 


CLOTH 4I 


dren also make napkins and lunch sets for the tables as well 
as costumes for various occasions. Children will often at- 
tempt and carry out successfully things apparently quite 
impossible. One little girl in the kindergarten, on completing 
an apron for herself and a dress for her doll, remarked that 
she believed she would make herself a dress. She cut it out, 
made it, and wore it. 

Children progress at different paces. It is therefore impos- 
sible to keep the class together without sacrificing some of 
the abler children. The standard by which we measure a 
teacher’s ability should not be how well a child does at any 
particular moment, but the extent of his growth from time 
to time. 

Provisions for Growth.—How can we provide for the physi- 
cal, mental, and social growth of little children through the 
use of cloth? Proper conditions for physical growth can be 
provided by discouraging intricate work and by promoting 
the children’s natural joy in their work. In providing for the 
essential condition of happiness the teacher should realize 
that happiness is promoted by helping the child to recognize 
and solve the problems he meets in his work. The solving of 
such problems provides conditions that make for mental 
growth. Opportunity for developing the desired social habits 
is afforded through exchange of ideas during the process of 
sewing and in the discussion of work afterward. 

The value of adapting a process to the needs of children 
is nowhere more clearly shown than in the use of cloth in 
sewing. A generation ago children’s experiences in sewing 
were limited to articles purposed by ‘‘grown-ups”’ and sewed 
with “grown-up” stitches. As a result of this experience 
children hated sewing and hesitated to make new things from 


42 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


cloth. Observation of children in a modern kindergarten or 
primary school, where the child purposes his own activities 
and carries them out in a way adapted to his stage of develop- 
ment, shows that he not only enjoys sewing but undertakes 
without hesitation to make anything he needs. 


IX 
ROVING 


Roving does not afford so many possibilities for expression 
as some of the other materials. It best lends itself to rope- 
making and weaving. A variety of colors should be available 
for use. 

The children use rope for dividing their room, for jumping, 
for use in construction, and for horse-reins. The rope may be 
made from roving. Strands may be twisted together, braided, 
or tied in knots. Jumping-ropes should be weighted by knot- 
ting in the centre to be heavy enough to turn; clothes-pins 
may be attached to the ends for handles. 

Weaving.—Children are interested in the processes of weav- 
ing. The small yarn weaving is too intricate, but weaving 
with roving on simple looms is large enough to afford use of 
the larger muscles. The greatest difficulty in kindergarten 
weaving is that weaving large enough for children involves 
more time than their short span of attention will permit. 
In the traditional kindergarten of the past weaving occupied 
an important place. Now it is recognized as an activity be- 
longing to older children. 

Large looms can be made from wood. Nails driven at the 
ends hold the warp. The nails should not be placed too close 
together, as the weaving then becomes too tedious. The 
children may weave small mats for themselves to sit on. 
Later they make make a large loom, and the whole group 
may work on a larger rug. Roving may be used for the woof, 

43 


44 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


or old sheets and pillow-cases may be brought from home, 
dyed with cold-water.dyes, torn into strips, and used for the 
woof. 

If there is interest, weaving is a good activity for little 
children. However, there is little doubt but that in the past 
its value has been very much overestimated. It won its 
merits when any legitimate activity was welcomed as a re- 
action to the forced attitude of quiet “‘schoolroom”’ behavior. 
It was a clean, neat-looking activity that did not too much 
upset the perfect order of the classroom, and the children 
welcomed it as a relief from forced inactivity rather than from 
love of the activity itself. Judging it in the light of modern 
conceptions of the needs of little children, we find that weav- 
ing material does not lend itself particularly well as a means 
of expression for them; it does not provide many problems for 
solution, nor does it allow sufficient bodily activity. Weaving 
has its place in the activities of little children as the beginning 
of an industrial process, but is not as valuable an activity 
as is painting, clay-modelling, wood-working, or sewing. 


x 
PAINT 


One morning the children in the kindergarten found in 
their room for the first time an easel, brushes, and paints 
ready to use, and were told that they could paint whenever 
they wished. Bobby was the first child to use these wonder- 
ful new things. Without comment we watched his procedure. 
A great blotch of red paint near the centre of the paper, and 
around it similar spots of yellow, green, and blue, was Bobby’s 
rather neat contribution. Jane, attracted by the bright color 
he was using, followed him. She was more swift and less or- 
derly in her experiment. A dash of green, another of red, 
and still another of yellow, each running into the other, was 
the result. She was driven away by William, eager to try 
his hand. William covered the paper quickly with crude stripes 
of all the colors, and then added confusion to confusion by 
painting over it all a dashing coat of yellow. The other chil- 
dren took their turns at the easel, but no two produced any- 
thing similar, and no one produced anything resembling a 
known shape. 

Is this the normal reaction of children to paint? What is 
the interpretation of such a reaction? What is its significance ? 
What ought a teacher to do about it? 

Manipulative Stage——In order to determine the normal 
reaction to a new drawing medium, we gave children media 
that they had never seen before. With the pencil they made 
marks and then became intensely interested in the ‘‘path” 

45 


46 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


that followed the pencil through a complicated network of 
scribbles. With crayon they made similar entanglements of 
lines, using all their colors. With charcoal indefinable smears, 
with water-color meaningless daubs, resulted. Through this 
series of experiments with different media we discovered that 
the reactions to all new drawing media are similar. The 
children first get acquainted with the medium; their interest 
is in the activity—the manipulative stage. 

Symbolic Stage.—The manipulative stage is essentially the 
beginning process in the use of any medium, yet it is im- 
portant only as it leads on to expression through use of the 
medium. So, after the children had spent several days ex- 
ploring the new medium, they were asked what they were 
painting. Bobby’s picture looked like meaningless daubs. 
Bobby pointed out the houses, the street-car, the trolley, and 
the “‘stocking”’ in front of the barber-shop. 

Other remarkable interpretations were given to equally 
chaotic compositions. Jane made a blue page with four 
circles of yellow, and explained that there were four children 
playing in the water at the beach. John said he had painted 
a giant in a castle, and pointed out the windows and towers. 
William, when asked to tell what he was painting, explained 
his intangible masses of color: ‘‘I am painting a lovely, lovely 
day, and these are shadows over the whole world.” Dick’s 
picture showed remarkable color interpretation. He had 
painted a small spot of red. Above it was a large spot of 
yellow; above the yellow across the top of the paper was 
black; down the sides of the paper were streaks of black, and 
across the bottom of the paper was green. On being asked to 
explain his picture, Dick beamed. He came to the easel, 
pointed to the red spot, and said: ‘‘ This is the house, and this 


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PAINT 47 


is the up-stairs [yellow]; this is the sky [black], and the rain 
coming down [black streaks at side], and this is the grass 
[green].” 

What is the meaning of these illegible pictures? The 
“‘barber-shop,” ‘“‘the children in swimming,” “the giant in the 
castle,” ‘“‘the house”—all showed definite feeling. The chil- 
dren reflected the feeling as they enthusiastically explained 
the pictures. But the pictures were without conventional 
form. ‘The children had expressed their ideas by means of 
crude signs for the things signified. They saw in their paint- 
ings the reflections of their experiences, and were satisfied to 
interpret the mysterious signs which were ‘“Greek”’ to the 
uninitiated. The teacher recognized the symbolic stage— 
“symbolism serves as a sign, not as a conveyance.” 

Handling Symbolic Stage.—What is the value of this kind 
of expression? ‘“‘It serves to stimulate, to vivify; its main 
value is reactive, freeing the child and giving him help upon 
his own imagery. It must at first be judged from this stand- 
point, its liberating power.” So Bobby was encouraged to 
paint more pictures telling new things rather than to make 
a better house and better street-cars in the picture he had 
made. In the class discussion at this time no comment was 
made on how well a thing was drawn, but emphasis was placed 
upon ideas expressed. Everything was done to encourage the 
characteristic spontaneity of expression. ‘The remarks in- 
cluded nothing that would tend to destroy the wholesome 
confidence that makes the child have no hesitancy in attempt- 
ing to draw anything at all that is involved in the idea he is 
expressing. The discussion first gave the children an oppor- 
tunity to explain their pictures; second, it encouraged the 
children to look for new things that had not been done be- 


48 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


fore; third, it left the children with further ideas and eager 
to express them. _ 

Many teachers, in their attempt to get children really to 
tell something when they draw, make the mistake of insisting 
that a child first plan a picture and tell what he is going to 
paint, and how he is going to paint it, before he begins to work. 
A child starts with an idea to express. As he draws, the idea 
grows. His drawing is a help to thinking. To insist that he 
tell every detail of his picture before he begins to draw will 
limit his ideas, which ought to grow as he works. 

The aim at this time is to make every part of the picture 
significant. The test for growth is not how well the child 
has expressed his ideas, but how many ideas he has had, and 
how readily he has expressed them. ‘Once the child’s imagery 
is loosened, then does his expression become easy, become a 
delight, become varied.” ‘The ‘loosening of imagery” must 
precede free expression. During the symbolic stage the child 
is unhampered by the limitations of technique. 

It is at this time that the special art teacher, who does not 
understand the importance of recognizing this stage, is apt 
to retard the child’s development. She sees only poor draw- 
ing in his picture, and insists on his learning how to draw cer- 
tain objects. If he recognizes the improvement over his draw- 
ings he is satisfied only with drawing the things he has been 
taught. If he does not care for her suggestions, he becomes 
irritated at her persistence in having him express the draw- 
ing teacher’s ideas in her way. In the former case his expres- 
sion is limited to the things he has learned to draw instead 
of using the entire field of his experience. In the latter case 
he may become disgusted and give up drawing entirely. It 
is the advantageous time as well as the normal time to build 


PAINT 49 


up habits of free expression. His drawing field is as wide as 
his life. He readily draws anything that he has experienced 
without the handicap of “‘how to do it.” 

Realistic Stage.-—Where do these expressions lead? ‘‘As 
soon as the child has acquired the habit of vivifying and lib- 
erating his image through expression, then a return may 
take place to original form.’’ Bobby no longer uses symbols 
for objects to help him to relive experiences, but he uses 
representations of the forms themselves to serve as a con- 
veyance in telling that experience to some one else. If he 
wishes to tell what he did during his vacation he now paints 
a boat that resembles a real boat in form. By means of his 
picture he conveys the mode of Indian warfare. 

When “symbolism serves as a sign,” technique hampers 
expression. But when there is a return to “original form,” 
technique encourages expression. Bobby wants to make 
trains that look like trains. Jane wants to know what a 
trundle-bed looks like. William says his picture is no good, 
because his paint ‘‘ran down.” The children are unable satis- 
factorily to express their ideas. In order to continue to grow 
in self-expression they must have help in “how to do it,” or 
technique. 

This desire on the part of the children to return to original 
form does not indicate that they should be given models 
from which to draw. Children leave the symbolic stage grad- 
ually. To see an attempt to get little children to draw 
from a model is rather startling. The model serves only to 
suggest associations to them. Instead of a simple drawing 
of the apple placed before them as a model, their papers may 
show fruit-stands, orchards, and other intricate representa- 
tions of more remote associations. 


50° THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


The drawings of the children indicate the child’s thinking 
process. Since he does not draw from models, he is unham- 
pered by what he can see from any one point of view and pro- 
ceeds to put down on paper the different associations as they 
are grouped about one idea. He draws his schoolroom, the 
playground outside, the slide, and at the bottom of the page 
the rings in the gymnasium. The teacher recognizes a unit 
in thought in this picture, even though it is impossible to 
recognize unity in expression. 

Help in Technique.—The drawing seems hopelessly crude 
to the adult. The child’s standards for judgment are not the 
same as the adult’s. Some mistakes should be ignored until 
the child in his development is able to grasp them. For in- 
stance, little children may not be able to see that one side 
of a house is dark in shadow, and the other light in sunlight. 
However, they can see that the house is too small for the 
flowers that surround it. 

The return to original form is first through observance of 
the large underlying realisms. The largest mistakes in propor- 
tion, proportion between objects, are first to be noticed. 
Improvement should be made through comparison to real life: 
“Could the man walk into the house?” “Is the automobile 
too large to be driven into the garage?” Thus the child is 
led to get better relative proportion in his pictures. Later, 
children will wish better proportion in individual objects. The 
street-car must be ‘‘shaped like”’ a street-car, the office build- 
ing tall and slender as well as towering above the street-car. 

The most evident mistake in perspective concerns showing 
earth and sky in the distance. Young children in showing 
landscapes paint a strip of blue at the top of the paper for 
sky, and brown or green at the bottom for ground, and leave 





PiaTe VII. Children’s drawings showing improvement in use of principles 
of perspective. 


t. Earth and sky do not meet. 

2. Earth and sky meet, but objects are placed on horizon. 

3. Objects are distribuced in foreground but do not reach up into sky. 
4. Objects reach up into sky but do not show distance. 

5. Objects made smaller to show distance. 

6. Objects made smaller and placed higher on paper to show distance. 


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PAINT 51 


“air space” between; later on, observation of sky-lines will 
chow them that the earth and sky seem to meet. They next 
discover that objects in landscape are not lined up on the sky- 
line as their pictures show, but are placed on the ground 
from foreground to horizon. Still later, children see that trees 
and houses reach up into the sky far above the sky-line. Chil- 
dren then wish to show a house far away in the distance, and 
discover that objects far away appear smaller. Afterward 
they also discover that objects far away are higher on the 
paper. One must constantly bear in mind that this process 
of growth is gradual. The average child in kindergarten has 
slight interest in technique, and he may reach the second or 
third g ade before he uses these principles which seem easy 
to devei dp. 

Better composition can be encouraged by suggesting giving 
“room enough” where there is a tendency to crowd, and put- 
ting something on each side to keep the picture from up- 
setting where there is a lack of balance. 

Special Problems in Encouraging Expression.—Unusual 
responses from some of the children showed great limitation 
in ideas. One child was given paints and painted a Christmas- 
tree. Later the same child painted a Christmas-tree and re- 
fused to paint anything else. The drawing teacher insisted 
that he had no imagination and was a failure as far as drawing 
was concerned. Investigation showed that he had been given 
paints in the kindergarten and had been taught by formal 
steps to paint a tree. He continued to paint trees, having 
been given the idea that he could do nothing with paints 
without first being told how to do it. It is quite likely that 
this illustration is typical of a large group of cases. The best 
way to deal with these cases proved to be to make no attempt 


52 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


to skip over the manipulative stage, but to encourage the 
child to tell a great-variety of experiences, the teacher giving 
him a start by suggesting something that is related to what 
he is fond of doing. The idea told in his drawings may be dis- 
cussed, but no comment on technique should be made until 
the child feels that he can draw anything without being told 
how to do each step. In the case of the boy who painted 
Christmas-trees, his teacher asked about the Christmas-tree 
as it grew. He became interested in showing how the tree 
looked when he saw it growing in the country. A landscape 
resulted, which led to painting other things that he had seen 
in the country. 

Too much attention to technique is also limiting to self- 
expression. A second grade teacher gave a series of principles 
in landscape perspective, such as ‘‘earth and sky meet,” 
and ‘‘distant objects are smaller.” The children became more 
interested in how they were painting than they were atten- 
tive to what they were painting. Their help in technique 
was given before they felt the need for it. As a result their 
pictures showed the application of the principles, but ideas 
were lacking. The children in looking at them commented 
first and emphatically on the consistency of sizes of parts 
of the picture, and paid little or no attention to what idea 
was being expressed. ‘‘A mode of expression separated from 
something to express is empty and artificial, is barren and 
benumbing.”’ The teacher saw that their powers of expression 
were being paralyzed, and diverted them from too much at- 
tention to technique to wholesome interest in telling some- 
thing. As a result several weeks later every child in the class 
was painting pictures that told interesting and individual 
experiences. 


PAINT 53 


Use of Picture Poems.—When there is difficulty in getting 
children started to tell things in paint, “picture poems” may 
be used (poems that contain suggestions of pictures that the 
children can imagine). Stevenson’s “Rain Poem” is good. 
“Tt rains on the umbrellas and on the ships at sea’’ is hard 
to resist by even the most unimaginative child. Nursery 
rhymes and fairy tales give good material for suggestions. 
It is, however, still better to encourage the children to draw 
things in their own experience, their homes, coming to school, 
or the snow. This gives opportunity for direct expression of 
the child’s own experience. 

There is also much stimulation to expression in seeing what 
others have done. However, skill must be used in showing 
pictures to children to prevent encouragement of imitation 
rather than individual expression. Children’s paintings which 
were rich in ideas were collected and shown to groups who 
seemed to have nothing to “‘tell.”’” The children were asked 
to look for the meaning in the picture. After they had seen 
and enjoyed the paintings they were asked what they would 
like to tell in pictures. The variety of ideas in the pictures 
shown had suggested many different ideas to the children. 
This interchange of ideas resulted in much liberation of ex- 
pression. 

Color.—Among other evident mistakes that the child makes 
in drawing are mistakes in color. The teacher is not sure 
what should be done about the red trees, purple grass, and 
green skies that appear. The understanding of the develop- 
ment of the color sense solves the problem for us. From his 
responses we are led to believe that at first a baby sees only 
light and dark; later his responses show that he sees color; 
still later he is able to discriminate between tints, shades, 


54 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


and intensities. Experiments show that through color expe- 
riences the color sense is developed; and an individual working 
with color later sees color in objects that formerly he saw as 
gray. The small child is fond of the brightest and most in- 
tense colors. It is commonly supposed that, due to the “‘sav- 
age”’ stage, little children crave pure color. They do not 
necessarily crave such raw color, but since their color sense 
is less developed they require more intense color as a stimulus. 
To insist on children working for correct color is wrong, be- 
cause their color sense is not developed. They should be given 
intense color to work with, and much color experience in 
order to develop the color sense, but references to mistakes 
in color should be avoided until their color sense is better 
developed. 

Materials.—Does the use of paints provide for developing 
the desired social habits and also for mental and physical 
growth? In the use of these materials children learn to use 
freedom and to respect the rights of others. They learn to 
give and take constructive criticism as well as to use initi- 
ative. 

A medium to satisfy the physical and mental needs of 
children must also provide for large, rapid work and joy 
in activity. Such requirements are met by an equipment 
of large brushes, large sheets of paper, and plenty of accessi- 
ble paint. Standing at an easel, painting on large pieces of 
paper, brings into use the large muscles. Plenty of paint and 
large brushes provide for immediate expression essential in 
consideration of the child’s short span of attention. The chil- 
dren have rich color experiences. There is a joy in activity 
which promotes the desirable attitude of happiness in occu- 
pation. 


PAINT 55 


Paper.—The paper most practical for use is unprinted 
news-paper. It comes in sheets 24 inches by 36 inches, and 
should be ordered cut 24 inches by 18 inches. This paper is 
best because it is cheapest and makes it possible for the 
children to have plenty. Children need quantity rather than 
quality of paper. 

Brushes.—The brushes should be large camel’s-hair water- 
color wash brushes. The large brush will encourage painting, 
since large surfaces can be quickly covered. 

Paint.—Tempera or show-card colors are adapted to this 
use, but are expensive. It is much better to buy cold-water 
fresco paint in powder form and mix it for use. It can be pur- 
chased by the pound at prices ranging from ten to thirty-five 
cents, according to the color. In buying cold-water paint 
avoid the tints of color that are prepared for wall use. The 
colors should be pure colors of the principal hues: red, orange, 
yellow, green, blue, violet, and dark brown. 

Mixing the Paint.—The paint should be about the con- 
sistency of cream. Stir the powder and a little water together 
until lumps are removed. Add water until the paint is the 
right consistency. The pigment settles to the bottom. A 
little stick should be provided for each jar of paint in order 
that the paint may be stirred and kept well mixed as it is 
used. Tongue depressors used by the medical department of 
the school can be purchased at any drug-store and make 
good ‘‘paint mixers.” 

The Easel.—The easel should be substantial and of the 
right height for the children. The board should be attached 
firmly to the upright pieces and not rest loosely on the frame, 
as in the construction of easels used in art schools. The draw- 
ing-board should be on the eye level of the child as he stands. 


56 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


A very satisfactory easel can be made by the manual-train- 
ing department at a reasonable cost. Thumb-tacks will hold 
several pieces of paper in place. The paper can be turned 
back as it is used. The easel should be placed near a window 
with the light from the left. At the right of the easel a small 
table should be placed to hold tke cans of paint. The floor 
should be protected with a square of linoleum. If linoleum is 
not available, news-paper can be used. The jars for holding 
the paint should be air-tight. Pint mason-jars or mayon- 
naise-jars with screw tops are good. The children bring them 
from home. 

Care and Handling of Brushes.—Each brush should be 
marked with one of the colors and always used in that color. 
Even though the brushes are washed every day, the paint 
may be grayed by using the red brush in the green paint. A 
convenient way to mark the brushes is to use the cold-water 
paint. Paint a stripe of color around the handle, and when 
it dries cover with shellac. The brushes should be washed, 
rolled to a point, and allowed to dry with bristles straight. 
Children should learn to take proper care of their own equip- 
ment. 

As soon as the child has had an opportunity to try the 
materials, handling the brush should be given some considera- 
tion. The brush should be held loosely between the thumb 
and first finger, and controlled by muscles of the arm and not 
the fingers. In case the child persists in grasping the brush 
in the whole hand it is best to let him continue; with more 
practice he will progress to the more advanced stage of hold- 
ing the brush. 

Habits in Use of Paint.—The children in one group discov- 
ered that certain ways of using the materials gave better 


PAINT 57 


results. With the teacher they worked out certain habits 
that they observed in using paint. 


(z) They recognized an “‘aristocracy”’ in brushes and that 
paint-brushes did not do their best work when they 
were treated like scrub-brushes. Put the paint on 
with direct strokes, do not scrub. 

(2) In order that the paint may not run down on the 
paper, wipe the brush on the side of the paint-can 
to remove excess paint. 

(3) Always put the brush in the right color of paint. 

(4) Stir paint. 

(5) Wash brush and roll to point. Do not leave in water 
overnight. 


The children also used the same care in protecting their 
clothes and the floor that they had used while working with 
other materials. 

Provision for Additional Drawing.—For a large group one 
easel does not provide sufficient opportunity for drawing. 
Children may have additional chance to draw through use 
of the blackboard, and also with large marking crayon, 
using sets of colors—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and 
violet—and large manila paper. 

As soon as children begin to work for improvement in tech- 
nique they will need references to see how things look and 
see how “other artists” have done the thing they are doing. 
To provide for this the children should be encouraged to col- 
lect pictures and build up a library of form. This is used 
not as a source for ideas, but as an “encyclopedia” to which 
children can go for information to help them tell their story 
more truthfully. 


58 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


As they grew in thought and expression, “Bobby and Jane 
and William” wished’ to show more detail in their drawings 
than was possible with the use of the large brushes only. 
Through early use of a drawing medium for large quick work, 
they were ready for the use of a medium for more intricate 
work. Through early use of drawing to express their own ideas, 
they were accustomed to the use of drawing as a tool. New 
media and technique were added to meet new needs, but 
through the “exercise of the art instinct,” through use of 
materials that fitted their needs, and through procedure 
adapted to their development they were equipped with an 
adequate means of expression. 


Xl 
BY-PRODUCTS 


Kinds.—William came to school one afternoon bringing a 
hat-box. He said that his mother gave it to him and that he 
wanted to make a “merry-go-round” out of it. His teacher 
wisely made use of the incident to increase her limited sup- 
ply of construction materials. She encouraged children to 
collect materials from which they could make things. She 
mimiographed a letter and sent it home with each child. 
In the letter she asked the mothers to save “by-products,” 
and explained that by the term “by-products” she meant 
any kind of clean waste products that might be used by the 
children for construction. She included a list of suggestions: 
boxes of all kinds—candy-boxes, hat-boxes, suit-boxes, 
match-boxes, pill-boxes, round oatmeal-boxes, egg-boxes, 
gas-mantle boxes; coffee-cans, collar-buttons, corks, spools, 
milk-bottle tops, clothes-pins, sponges, buttons, string, wire, 
tinfoil, cloth, hat-rests, ribbon-blocks, wallpaper, a news- 
paper, and berry-crates. 

Opportunity for Social Growth.—A cupboard was provided 
which was accessible to the children. The children made it 
their “‘base for supplies.” They brought material when they 
discovered it. They both contributed to and drew from the 
common fund of supplies. This helped develop the desirable 
“civic interest” in providing for the group. 

The experiment showed that the use of by-products pro- 
vides for two life situations: 


(1) Here is material—what can be made from it? 
(2) Here is a need—what can satisfy it? 
59 


60 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


By-products cannot be considered a distinct material with 
a special technique, because they are made from many ‘‘raw 
materials,’ pasteboard, wood, or metal. However, their use 
enables children to make things more quickly than they 
could make them from “raw materials,” and are, therefore, 
well adapted to the child’s short span of interest. The use of 
by-products also provides excellent opportunities for prob- 
lems, finding and testing solutions. 

Mental Growth.—In consideration of the valuable oppor- 
tunities for growth the teacher welcomes the child’s activi- 
ties. She wisely does not assume responsibility for what the 
child is making. She is there as a “consulting engineer”’ if 
he becomes discouraged from difficulties. The help that is 
given him is in the form of assisting him to see his problem 
more clearly and, by means of questions, directing his think- 
ing toward a solution. 

A boy in the first grade brought in a box from which he 
said he wanted to make a dog-cart. As he worked he encoun- 
tered many difficulties which he had not anticipated. Several 
children made suggestions as to how he could fasten the 
sides together. He listened and chose his way. When he 
came to the wheels, his teacher helped him, not by telling 
him what to use for wheels and how to fasten them on, but 
by asking “what wheels are for and what they must do,” 
thus concentrating his problem. He decided that the wheels 
must turn, and that they must be round. Then he looked for 
something to use. He found can-lids, which answered very 
well. Other children offered suggestions for fastening the 
wheels on. He decided to use paper-fasteners, which he later 
discarded for a wooden axle and nails. 

Basis for Improvement.—Usableness is the basis for judg- 


BY-PRODUCTS 61 


ment and the test for all improvement, and also is a standard 
which the child understands. A class discussion should in- 
clude opportunity for the children to comment on the work 
and to suggest means of improvement. They will pick out 
the good tables and tell why they are good, and will also 
decide that a table is shaky and needs to be made stronger, 
and will suggest ways of making it so; the shaky table is not 
a usable one. 

The play instinct directs much work. One group in kinder- 
garten made a boat from blocks, filled the boat with dolls 
made from paper, then decided to make a landing and sur- 
round it with an amusement park, all of which provided many 
problems for solution and opportunity for manipulation of 
material. 

Any work in which there is danger of injury, due to lack of 
muscular control, should be done for the child. 

If the children desire more finish in the products, they may 
paint them with cold-water paint, such as they use at the 
easel. 

The making of dolls and doll houses and furniture makes 
up a large group of uses of by-products. Children make dolls 
from news-paper, folding a strip for the body, another for 
the arms, and fastening with a paper-fastener. They also 
make such dolls from paper napkins, rolled, doubled together 
and tied for the head; and from paper bags, twigs, grape- 
vines, flowers, corn-husks, clothes-pins, gloves, stockings, 
socks, balls, bottles, and cloth. Raggedy Ann dolls made 
from cloth are popular with the children, and are enjoyed. 
more than the expensive mechanical dolls. The children take 
great interest in clothing the dolls they make and surround- 
ing them with all the “comforts of life.” 


62 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


The variety of materials that are available in by-products 
encourages versatility in use and offers occupation which can 
be carried on outside the school. The use of by-products 
will encourage self-directed activity, and will be a help to 
the teacher who has difficulty in getting away from the 
formal, dictated method of using materials. As in all primary 
work, the adult’s standards and the teacher’s desire to show 
clever and spectacular work must be sacrificed for the growth 
which is indicated in the results of the child’s own interests 
and efforts. 


XII 
ART APPRECIATION 


Appreciation of Art Limited to Children’s Interests.—In 
a primary class a lesson in Art Appreciation was being 
given. It was about a picture, the “Sistine Madonna.” The 
teacher told the children about Raphael and why he painted 
the picture, and pointed out the figures by name—the Ma- 
donna and Child, St. Sixtus, St. Barbara, and the Cherubs. 
After the lesson we asked: ‘‘Why did you choose the ‘Sistine 
Madonna’?” ‘Because it is one of the world’s masterpieces. 
Every year we teach the children four of the masterpieces.” 
“Do you think they could appreciate the significance of the 
picture?” ‘Not now, but they will know about it when they 
are old enough to appreciate it.”’ ‘What are the children 
reading?’’ “Oh, little simple stories about children and 
animals.” ‘Why don’t you read them ‘The Idylls of the 
King’?” “They wouldn’t understand it; they will read that 
when they are older. We aim to give them the reading habit. 
Their reading follows their abilities and interests.” 

The incident is typical of the popular conception of Art 
Appreciation. The child is treated as a blank catalogue in 
which we would indelibly inscribe such productions as the 
world has termed masterpieces. Thus he has his knowledge 
stored away, ‘“‘issuable on demand.” Does this provide for 
growth? By this procedure his field of appreciation is limited 
to the number of pictures “studied,” and is bounded on all 
sides by art of every kind, to which he feels he must remain a 


stranger because he ‘‘has never studied it.” 
63 


64 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


Children can be led to have the habit of “reading pictures” 
as well as reading stories. As their experiences grow, their 
field for understanding the expressions of others about sim- 
ilar experiences will broaden. 

Field of Appreciation not Limited to Pictures.—What 
should we choose for our Art Appreciation lesson with pri- 
mary children? Pictures and sculpture, all would agree; but 
why limit the field of appreciation to pictures and sculpture, 
when it is as wide as life itself? Anything that is beautiful 
and that falls within the range of the child’s experience is 
worthy of consideration. If the children are making bowls, 
a piece of pottery; if weaving rugs, an Indian rug; if making 
furniture, a hand-made article of wood will find response 
in appreciation of the “‘expressions of others.” 

Basis of Selection is Children’s Experiences and Interests. 
—The children’s interests and experiences, then, will deter- 
mine our selections. When children first come to school their 
experiences have been centred in home life. They are inter- 
ested in pictures of babies and little children; they especially 
delight in Jessie Willcox Smith’s “Mother Goose’’ pictures. 
During the home-life project the children are interested in 
pictures of activities of home life such as Millet’s ‘‘ Feeding 
the Birds,” ‘The First Step,” “Woman Churning,” or 
“Can’t You Talk?” by Holmes, or “Supper,” by Fesberry. 
Later, children become interested in home life of other lands. 
The Indian project suggests pictures of Indian life: ‘‘The In- 
dian Hunter,” “Indian Shepherd,” “Voice of the Falls,” by 
Irving Couse; ‘Picture Writing,” by Frederic Remington. 
Sculpture: ‘Black Hawk,” by Lorado Taft; “Appeal to the 
Great Spirit,” by Cyrus Dallin; Indian pottery and rugs. 
Dutch life suggests ‘‘Tulip Time,” by George Hitchcock; 


ART APPRECIATION 65 


“Tittle Dutch Maid” and “The Baby,” by Charles Wood- 
bury. Children naturally express their experiences, and enjoy 
seeing those experiences expressed by others. 

Desired Growth in Appreciation.—It is obvious, then, that 
ability to appreciate should develop with experience. When 
we show children Indian pottery we wish them to appreciate 
the beauty of its craftsmanship, but we also want it to lead 
to appreciation of other craftsmanship. We wish to add 
“Tulip Time” to their picture acquaintances, but we also 
wish the knowing of that picture to lead on to other pictures. 

How to Provide for Growth in Appreciation.—How can we 
provide for this growth? “Art is not an outer product nor an 
outer behavior. It is an attitude of spirit, a state of mind, 
one which demands for its satisfaction and fulfilling a shaping 
of matter to new and more significant form.” * Our first pro- 
vision for growth, then, would be in making the child feel that 
a work of art is vitally a human expression. One must feel 
the need (the state of mind) and the process (a shaping of 
matter to new and more significant form) as antecedents to 
the material expression. 

How may we create such a feeling? ‘The following lesson 
was worked out with second-grade children with this aim in 
view: As the children were studying Holland, ‘‘The Land- 
scape with the Mill,”’ by Ruysdael, was presented. Each 
child was supplied with a copy. First, the children looked at 
the picture and “read” what the picture told them. They 
thought out a title and decided that the picture was painted 
in Holland. It was suggested to them that, were the artist to 
speak to them in his native language, they could not un- 


* Dewey, John, “‘Culture and Industry in Education,” Teachers College Bul- 
letin, March 1, tg10. 


66 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


derstand him, but in using a picture as a means of telling 
his story he could tell them much about Holland. 

Then the children were given the artist’s title and the 
artist’s name, and were asked: “‘Why, do you suppose, did he 
paint this picture?” Through discussion the children decided 
it was because he loved Holland and wanted to tell people 
about it. The children disagreed with one boy who thought 
he painted the picture to show what a good artist he was. 

As a means of helping the children to get the feeling that 
prompted the painting of the picture, they were asked whether 
they had ever seen anything they wanted to paint. Yes, 
they had: ‘‘a train at night,” “‘my pony,” “‘the fire-engine,” 
“my aunt’s farm.” ‘Then they tried to imagine Ruysdael’s 
love of this familiar Holland scene. All information about 
the picture was given from this view-point: how the artist 
loved Holland, and how he loved to paint, and how, therefore, 
he would naturally tell of his country through a picture. 
Furthermore, as the children had been studying principles 
of landscape, they noticed that he made the earth and sky 
meet, and they looked for distant objects to determine why 
these objects looked so far away. 

At the conclusion of the lesson the children realized three 
points: 


(1) That people tell us things in pictures that we can learn 
to read, to understand, and to enjoy; 

(2) That the picture is painted because there is some great 
feeling that the artist wants to express; 

(3) That the children themselves can tell their own feelings. 


The technique discussed should be only such as the children 
have had before. If they have learned about balance, or 


ART APPRECIATION 67 


rhyming lines, or contrasts of light and dark, they may look 
for examples in the picture. 

Common Approach to All Appreciation.—Any work of art 
may be approached in the same way. ‘The study of a build- 
ing may be approached by considering what need caused the 
construction and how the building has satisfied that need. 

As we provide children with materials and technique in 
order that they may adequately express themselves, so we 
try to make the work of art live to them as a human feeling, 
made immortal through exquisite expression. 


XII 


BUILDING THE ART CURRICULUM FOR KINDER- 
GARTEN AND LOWER PRIMARY GRADES 


Changing conceptions of education are making consequent 
changes in the curriculum. What changes will a saner con- 
ception of art education make in the art curriculum? 

Former Conceptions of the Art Curriculum.—Examination 
of representative art courses* for the lower primary grades 
shows that our conception of an art curriculum has been that 
of a list of activities apportioned to certain art periods through- 
out the year. For example, we find in a State course of study: 
“December—(1) make and decorate Japanese lanterns; (2) 
paint lanterns; (3) paint the Christmas-tree; (4) paint the 
Christmas-stocking; (5) paint a reindeer; (6) paint winter 
landscape; (7) illustrate Christmas subjects: (a) hanging the 
stockings, (b) bringing the Christmas-tree, (c) Santa Claus 
coming, (d) Christmas morning.” Scattered through such 
courses we find similarly apportioned subject-matter, such as: 
“October, first week, teach children the six standard colors. 
February, second and third weeks, teach vertical. Let two or 
three children draw vertical lines on the board, to be tested 
by the teacher with a plumb-line. Make sketches of vertical 
things. Fourth week, teach horizontal, using similar method.” 

Generally speaking, then, we are accustomed to think of 


* Farnum, Royal Bailey, ‘‘Present Status of Drawing and Art in the Ele- 
mentary and Secondary Schools of the United States,” U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
tion Bulletin, 1914, no. 13, whole no. 586. 


68 


THE ART CURRICULUM 69 


the art curriculum as either a list of things for the child to 
make or a list of knowledges and skills involved in the art 
process for the child to acquire. But, “art is not an outer 
product nor an outer behavior. It is an attitude of spirit, a 
state of mind—one which demands for its own satisfaction 
and fulfilling a shaping of matter to new and more significant 
form.” * 

Consideration of Art Process a Factor in Making Curric- 
ulum.—This conception, that the art curriculum should be 
based upon a list either of things for children to make or 
skills for children to acquire, has led us to work backward. 
The beginning of art is the feeling of need—the desire for 
expression which is satisfied by means of material, tools, and 
skills. The product is but the projection or the crystallization 
of the idea or feeling. If the art work is to be genuine the 
children must be allowed to follow this natural process— 
first feeling, then expressing. To assign to the child what he 
is to make is to make the art work artificial—a mere form. 
For example, a boy came into school one stormy morning, 
went to the easel, and painted the picture reproduced in the 
frontispiece of this book. Here was a genuine art process— 
the experiencing of the emotion, the satisfaction through ex- 
pression. A visiting teacher saw the picture, and for her next 
art lesson had the children make pictures of a little girl in 
the wind losing her umbrella. Here was an imitation of the 
art process, without meaning, empty, artificial. 

The first and perhaps most important change that must 
be evident in the art curriculum, then, is the change from 
listing a series of things for children to make, to planning 


* Dewey, John, “Culture and Industry in Education,” Teachers College Bul- 
elin, 10th series, no. ro. 


70 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


opportunity for children to develop ability to feel and to 
express. This does not mean that we cannot anticipate what 
children will do. Children as well as races reflect themselves, 
their interests, and their environment in their activities. A 
rainy day brings pictures of rainy days just as surely as the 
reindeer that delighted primitive man is recorded in cave 
drawings. If there is genuine interest in Eskimo life the in- 
terest will be evident in the things children do, in what they 
model, in the pictures they paint. 

Consideration of Need for Technique a Factor in Building 
Curriculum.—Granting the importance of facility in expres- 
sion, how can we provide for its development in the curric- 
ulum? Expression necessitates a medium. The manipulation 
of that medium constitutes a resistance to expression; one 
struggles with unwieldy materials in order that the feeling 
may take form. This resistance may be felt in the lack of 
an adequate vocabulary or in the lack of ability to construct 
sentences; it may be felt in lack of skill in handling clay or 
in inaccurate draftsmanship. Expression becomes unfettered 
through a growing control over materials as well as through 
a growing responsiveness to feeling. Many do not recognize 
this point, but consider that the exercise of the art instinct 
is provided for when the child is allowed to express his own 
ideas. 

Since control over materials or technique is a means of 
freeing expression, provision for it must be made in the cur- 
riculum. Through repeated attempts to gain satisfactory form 
the race has accumulated valuable experiences concerning 
the use of materials. The child has need for these expe- 
riences in the art process, just as he needs the accumulated 
experiences in arithmetic. 





Piate VIII. Pictures showing growth both in unity of ideas and in 
technique. 


“Pilgrims and Indians.’’—Kindergarten. 

“Santa Claus and a Christmas tree.’-—Kindergarten. 
“T washed my doll’s clothes.’””—First grade. 
“Teeter-totter—we have one at home.’’—First grade. 
“Japan.”’—Second grade. 

“The steam shovel.”’—Second grade. 


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THE ART CURRICULUM 7 


Need for Objectives and Standards.—This accumulated 
experience or technique consists of certain attitudes, knowl- 
edges, habits, and skills. The sequence of these steps in growth 
on the basis of the child’s needs and development has been 
discussed in detail in preceding chapters. However, in order 
that each successive year may bring such experiences to the 
child as will promote real growth in expression, it will be help- 
ful, in addition to providing suitable materials, encouraging 
responsiveness to feeling, and supplying technique as there 
is apparent need, to formulate aims and standards which will 
guide us and prevent floundering in the mass of detail. 

Need for Additional Provision for Appreciation.—In provid- 
ing for growth in expression we must not lose sight of the 
importance of the development of appreciation. Some ap- 
preciation will be established through the child’s use of 
materials. But, since his use of materials is very crude, an 
appreciation of the work of others developed by comparison 
to his own use of materials may overawe him to the extent 
of hindering his expression by emphasizing his own inade- 
quacies. As he grows older and desires better technique his 
appreciation of a masterpiece may be increased through ex- 
periencing some of the artist’s problems. For example, one’s 
appreciation of a picture done in water-color is increased after 
he has attempted to paint in water-color and knows the diffi- 
culties of handling that medium. However, to show a picture 
to a child when he is first attempting to use paint may make 
him feel that his own efforts are worthless and may discourage 
further effort. The child’s appreciation of the work of others 
through his own use of materials increases as his experiences 
increase. For this reason we find in the record of activities 
and outcomes quoted below fewer attitudes of appreciation 


7m THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


of the work of “grown-ups” established through the child’s 
use of material in the kindergarten, and correspondingly 
more in the first and second grades. 

Shall we wait, then, until the child reaches the upper grades 
to begin to emphasize appreciation? One cannot observe little 
children and consent to ignore their genuine enthusiasm about 
things that interest them. So the appreciations that we hope 
to establish must be the outgrowth of the child’s entire ex- 
perience and not be limited to his experiences in using ma- 
terials. To notice a new dress that another child is wearing; 
to notice a lovely flower-bed and comment on it; to want to 
pick up papers from the school lawn; to be conscious of 
pleasure in seeing beautiful color are evidences of a living 
zesthetic sense. Appreciation as a factor in the curriculum, 
then, is not adequately provided for as an outgrowth of such 
activities as are listed below, but must be also established 
through looking for and enjoying beautiful things that are 
a real part of the child’s entire experience. 

Record of Activities and Outcomes a Help in Determin- 
ing Needs of Group.—A record of activities and outcomes 
will help to reveal the needs of the group. The method of- 
fered below is given not as a model but as an example of how 
the need was met in a particular situation. With the se- 
quence of development in mind, the groups were carefully 
observed in order to determine how far each group could 
progress in the various phases of development in order to 
promote maximum growth. In making and using these rec- 
ords it is necessary to keep in mind that groups vary because 
of the factors of experience and native equipment; and to 
consider the particular groups themselves in anticipating 
their needs, and that under no circumstances are we to adopt 


THE ART CURRICULUM 73 


a plan because it has been successful elsewhere. Also, the in- 
dividuals whose rates of progress are more rapid or less rapid 
than those of the other members of their groups must be al- 
lowed to proceed at their own rates. 

The main objective in the use of materials in this situation 
was: the liberating of each child’s latent powers for freer ex- 
pression by helping him (1) to recognize the satisfaction of 
worth-while expression and (2) to gain such control over 
materials as will facilitate that expression. 

Need for Recording Activities and Desirable Outcomes in 
Relation to These Activities——In addition to general objec- 
tives, definite aims in regard to the use of materials for each 
grade were determined upon. Standards were formulated as 
a means of checking in our effort to accomplish those aims. 
As a guide to supplying technique as it was needed so that 
“activity might lead on to further activity,” the steps in 
technique (attitudes, knowledges, habits, and skills) were re- 
corded in relation to the activities which revealed the need 
for that technique. The record was made for the different 
grades with reference to the materials. For more specific 
guidance objectives and standards for the use of each material 
by each grade were decided upon. 


THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


74 


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Pirate IX. A series of pictures painted by a first-grade child, evidently the 
expression of nature-study experiences. 


“A cat in a bush.” 

“The cat goes away; a bird comes and builds a nest.” 

“A little girl is happy when she finds the nest in her yard.” 

“The little girl cries when she later finds that the cat has come back.” 

“But the cat goes away without hurting the birds.” 

“ Another little girl comes the next week and finds three bird’s nests in the bush.” 


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INIVd 
J Zavay 


THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


84 


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85 


THE ART CURRICULUM 


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AVTO 


THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


86 


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87 


THE ART CURRICULUM 


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Il gavay 


THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


88 


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INIVd 
II adavay 


THE ART CURRICULUM 89 


Doctor Bonser has defined the curriculum as: ‘‘The sum 
total of the activities through which the needs of life are 
satisfied, arranged in that sequence which fits them to the 
progressively expanding interests and capacities of pupils.” : 
In the light of this definition we find that such a record of 
representative activities and consequent establishment of 
those attitudes, knowledges, habits, and skills as will help 
the child to satisfy his needs, forms the basis for the art cur- 
riculum. Alertness and sensitiveness to the children’s needs 
are emphasized in making such a record. As a basis for the 
curriculum, then, it will bring to the curriculum that plasticity 
that is essential in adequately meeting ever changing condi- 
tions. 


* Bonser, Frederick G., Elementary School Curriculum, pp. 86. (Macmillan.) 


XIV 
ARRANGEMENT OF CLASSROOM 


Work Inspiration of a Well-Arranged Room.—With the 
coming of the workshop to take the place of the “tin-soldier”’ 
arrangement in the formal classroom, many order-loving 
principals and superintendents who are believers in the new- 
er education open the doors to the kindergarten and lower 
primary rooms with qualms at the confusion and guilty feel- 
ings at the disarrangement. The schoolroom should exist, 
first of all, for the use of the children, although we might 
judge from some of our childhood experiences that it existed 
to be kept neat and clean. 

In the arrangement for work, under conditions of freedom, 
the room is apt to have an uninviting appearance. Much can 
be done toward proper organization and arrangement of a 
room without interference with the desired freedom of work. 
A room can be so “‘helter-skelter” as to make work almost 
impossible. Every one has stepped into a workroom so 
“cluttered” that it was hard to resist stepping out again. 
Every one has experienced a workroom so attractively ar- 
ranged as to inspire a desire to work. Every room presents 
its individual problems, but every room should be studied 
carefully, first for useful and then for beautiful arrangement. 

Any room is more satisfying when the furniture is arranged 
in “units.” Utility should be the basis for grouping into 
units. For instance, the work-bench, tools, and box of wood 

90 


ARRANGEMENT OF CLASSROOM gI 


make one unit; the clay, clay-table, and crock, clay-boards, 
and oilcloth, another unit; the easel, brushes, and paint still 
another group. For convenience all the materials that require 
much hand-washing should be near the lavatory. The sta- 
tionary furniture should be placed so as not to interfere with 
the large space needed for games. Light is another factor in 
arrangement, since the children must never work in dim light 
or facing the light. 

After the room is arranged for convenience much can be 
done in addition to make it more beautiful. The color of the 
walls is important. There should be the feeling of lightness 
and happiness that is suggested by light colors. The wood- 
work should be light. The woodwork and walls make up the 
background of the room, and the color, though light, should 
be very much grayed. 

Consideration of Child—In planning a kindergarten or 
first-grade room, one must constantly remind oneself that it 
is a child’s and not an adult’s room. Nothing will help so 
much in planning as to sit down on the floor with the same 
eye level as that of the child and look around. For the first 
time we realize how little we respect childhood as an enjoy- 
able and vital part of life; by the very arrangement of our 
rooms we make the child feel that nothing is worth while 
until he grows up to it. It is true that tables and chairs are 
appearing in his sizes, but he cannot see out of the windows, 
he cannot reach the door-knob, and the pictures are so high 
that they seem to belong to another world. 

Pictures should be hung near the eye level. The bulletin- 
boards on which the children’s work is displayed should be 
placed low enough so that the children can comfortably put 
up and take down work. 


g2 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


Suitable Pictures.—Pictures for kindergarten and first- 
grade walls should contain large masses with strong silhou- 
ettes and strong colors rather than much detail and subtle 
color. The color sense and optical co-ordination are not 
highly developed in little children. Pictures must be suffi- 
ciently strong in stimuli to make an impression if the children 
notice them. The subject should include something within 
the child’s experience. Fragments of works of art are not 
appreciated by little children. Children do not necessarily 
demand pictures that tell stories. This mistaken idea has 
arisen from the fact that comparisons of the effect made upon 
children by pictures that tell a story and pictures that ex- 
press feeling or emotion have been based upon pictures ex- 
pressing emotion never experienced by children. Children 
enjoy other than narrative pictures if they fall within the 
range of their experience. 

Smaller pictures that are not framed should be mounted. 
The mount should be a substantial cardboard; the color 
should echo or repeat softly one of the dominant colors in 
the picture. The mount should be within the range of the 
picture, not lighter than the lightest spot nor darker than the 
darkest spot. The strongest contrast should be in the picture 
and not between the picture and the mount. The stronger 
the contrast the more the attraction. Many mounts attract 
more attention than the pictures. The margin depends on the 
size and kind of picture, but it should usually be equal at top 
and sides and always wider at the bottom. 

Arrangement of Bulletin-Boards.—Bulletin and display 
boards may be disconcerting, or they may be satisfying. 
Where there is much small material to be displayed, it is 
better to group the material to carry the impression of a 


ARRANGEMENT OF CLASSROOM 93 


larger unit whose general shape conforms to the shape of 
the background. The picture for one group may be selected 
from shapes that fit well together, and from repetition of a 
common color. The same rules for margin used in picture- 
mounting should be applied to the arranging of bulletin- 
boards. 

The larger pieces of furniture should be placed in line with 
the walls of the room, in order to seem a part of the room. 
Everything in the room should be there because it is needed. 
The senseless little paper baskets that children make from 
dictation and which the teacher hangs around the black- 
board for decoration are the results of misdirected esthetic 
aspirations. 

The eternal “fitness to purpose” should direct all effort 
toward enrichment. To have little children spend time mak- 
ing things for which they feel no need, that are obviously for 
use and still not usable, and then use them for decorations, 
is an insult to their intelligence and a delusion in the name 
of art. | 


XV 


SUMMARY OF ART PRINCIPLES NEEDED IN 
WORK WITH LITTLE CHILDREN 


“John wants to make his road look flat and far away. He 
says it looks as if it climbed a hill. I don’t know how to do it 
myself, so I can’t show him.” Such statements from teachers 
of little children show that they are handicapped by the lack 
of knowledge of the “race experience.” The understanding 
of a few simple but essential principles of drawing and art 
structure will enable the teacher to give the child the help 
he needs. 


DRAWING 


Drawing is a tool, the use of which is conceded to be of 
scientific, industrial, and esthetic importance to every one. 
The child in school needs drawing as a means of expressing 
his ideas and experiences. The average citizen also needs 
drawing to enable him to express himself legibly and quickly. 
It may be that the drawing is needed to make clear an idea 
to a professional draftsman. It may be needed to show the 
architect what is desired or to copy a hat. The use of a skill 
additional to that required to express legibly the idea is de- 
sirable and enjoyable, but not necessary. However, in de- 
veloping this ability to draw we cannot anticipate whether 
individuals will wish to sketch hats or maps. Therefore, in- 
stead of teaching how to draw certain objects, we must teach 
drawing principles that will enable him to draw anything. 

94 


SERIES OF CHILDREN’S PICTURES SHOWING 
IMPROVEMENT IN PROPORTION 


PLATE X. KINDERGARTEN. 


The flower is larger than the tree; the boy is larger than the house. 
(See page 108.) 


PLATE XI. First GRADE. 


Notice improvement in relative proportion between the house, the 
automobile, and the man who is getting into the automobile. 


PLATE XII. SECOND GRADE. 


Notice that there is improvement in proportion in individual objects 
as well as improvement in relative proportion between objects. 


(Also note improvement in color.) 





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SUMMARY OF ART PRINCIPLES 95 


A suitable medium is essential to expression. The adult 
finds a pencil his most convenient medium. He makes a 
quick sketch to explain more clearly his idea. He uses a pencil 
because he carries a pencil with him; he is not always equipped 
with crayon, water-color, or charcoal. However, the pencil 
is not a medium suited to the needs of a child. His stage of 
development, both psychological and physiological, requires 
a medium that encourages large, quick work. He is stimulated 
by color. The medium best suited to self-expression of little 
children is large paper, brushes, and paint. 

“Learning to draw is learning to see”’ is an old adage with 
which every one is familiar. However, the sage failed to add 
that learning to see is a long, difficult process. We may learn 
to see correct outline of form and then find that we have great 
difficulty in learning to see correct lights and shadows, and 
still more difficulty in seeing color. As with other compli- 
cated processes, we must allow time for mastery. 

Anything that can be seen can be drawn. We can imagine 
how a kodak picture of an object would look. We get the 
image on the retina in exactly the same way. It is a puzzling 
problem to represent three dimensions on two. It is solved 
by observing carefully the direction of the lines and putting 
the lines on paper as observed. 

Proportion.—Children are at first satisfied to make crude 
silhouettes without attempting to show distance or propor- 
tion. Proportion is an essential of good drawing. The first 
class discussion of proportion should be based on relative sizes 
of objects with a view to correcting first the larger mistakes. 
The children may draw flowers higher than the house in a 
picture. They may be led to correct ideas of relative sizes of 
flowers and houses by looking out the window at flowers 


96 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


or by placing a growing flower on the floor. Observation will 
show the children how tiny a flower is compared with a house. 
It is important that the children make the man so that he 
can actually walk through the door before they attempt to 
make a head small enough to be carried by the legs that sup- 
port it. Later they may study the proportion of the indi- 
vidual figure and discover that it is divided “one-one-one” 
—shoulder to waist, to knee, to foot, with head added; also, 
that in order to get action, the figures can be drawn as stick 
figures until the desired action is gained, and then the flesh 
and clothes added. 

The first step in the improvement of drawing trees is to 
make them in proportion to the houses. The second step in 
improvement is made possible when the child becomes con- 
scious of the varying shapes of trees, rectangular, triangular, 
oval, and semicircular, and attempts to represent these shapes. 
It is not until children are much older that they are able to 
see the roundness of a tree and that this may be shown by 
proper distribution of dark and light. 

In landscape drawing the earth and sky seem to meet at 
the sky-line. The kind of sky-line varies in different types of 
landscapes. A straight line suggests the plain or the sea; long 
curved lines suggest rolling hills; the uneven jagged line 
placed high on the paper suggests mountainous country. 

Landscape Perspective.*—Distance is represented: (1) by 
making near-by objects large and distant objects small; (2) 
by placing near-by objects low on the paper and objects 
farther away nearer the sky-line. Distance may also be shown 
by grayed color, for objects farther away are much grayer 
in color than objects in the foreground; but, as children are 

* See p. 50. 


SUMMARY OF ART PRINCIPLES 97 


not able to see differences in color readily, distance represented 
by size and placing should be discussed and worked on long 
before there is any reference to differences in color. 

Perspective of Circle and Rectangle.—Every object has 
some similarity in shape to some geometrical form, the most 
common of which are circular or rectangular. Foreshortening 
that form will help in foreshortening the object. A sphere 
appears as a sphere in all positions. A circle viewed obliquely 
becomes an oval; the more obliquely it is viewed the narrower 
the oval appears. Above the eye level the circle curves up; 
below, it curves down. 

The rectangular solid presents a more difficult problem. 
Parallel lines or their continuations meet on the eye level. 
Therefore, lines above the eye level come down and below 
the eye level come up. The vertical lines remain vertical. 

These principles are generally discussed in the higher 
grades, but when the boy wants to know how to make his 
house “‘stand up” and ‘“‘go back” as houses appear, his teacher 
must know how to suggest keeping the vertical lines vertical 
to avoid a “wind-blown” appearance, and how to show him 
that the nearest vertical line is longest, and that the line at 
the top of the roof slants down, and the line at the bottom 
of the house slants up. 

The teacher must be prepared to show John how to see 
into the well if his questions indicate that he is ready for 
such help while he is drawing Jack and Jill. 

Giving Children Help as Need Appears.—The principles 
of drawing should be given to the children as the need ap- 
pears. Since there are many mistakes, only those should be 
selected for correction which involve principles for which the 
children are ready. Group rather than individual discussion 


98 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


should be used in order to avoid waste of time and to gain 
the benefit of the variety of contributions of the children. 
After a principle is discussed, the children should have an 
opportunity to talk over the drawings of the members of their 
group, pick out the best pictures, and show the ones who have 
done poorer work how, by observing the principle discussed, 
they might improve their pictures. 

Pictures can be of much assistance in teaching principles, 
but observation of the real objects is more valuable as a foun- 
dation for future drawing. One group had learned to show 
distance by size, but could not show distance by placing. 
A discussion of the problem was followed by having the chil- 
dren go to the windows and see what appeared lowest on the 
glass, and what a little higher, and so on until they discov- 
ered that the higher on the glass the objects were the farther 
away they were, until they came to the horizon-line. The 
children then went back to their pictures and discussed how 
each could improve his picture in consideration of what they 
had just learned. After that they examined the pictures in 
their room to discover what part was farthest away and what 
closest to them, explaining how they knew. 

Children are so confused with realities that they find it 
very difficult to see things as they appear instead of as they 
actually are. Teachers will find that even the simplest prin- 
ciples must be gone over again and again before the children 
are really observing them. Learning to see is a puzzling process. 
It cannot be rushed, and the child should not be forced to 
observe these principles in his drawing before he is able to 
distinguish appearances from actualities. 


SUMMARY OF ART PRINCIPLES 99 


PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN 


Many people have the mistaken idea that principles of 
design are the results of the arbitrary agreement of a group 
which decides, from time to time, what is good and what 
is bad in art. Individuals find themselves possessed of a 
little code made up of what is good and what is bad. For 
instance: “It is good art to hang a picture with two wires, 
and it is bad art to put furniture across the corners.” In 
reality, the principles of art structure are the result not of 
arbitrary agreement, but of investigation and analysis of 
feeling of what is pleasing. The same principles are univer- 
sally applicable; the same satisfaction of balance controls 
the arrangement of a room or of a printed page. It is true 
that a lifetime devoted to investigation and application may 
leave untouched many exquisite manifestations of art prin- 
ciples. However, the understanding of a few underlying prin- 
ciples by the average individual opens to him a richer life. 

Unfortunately there is no universal nomenclature for art 
principles. Usage is unifying the terms, and, in time, signifi- 
cance and use will have established as definite terms for the 
various principles of art as we now have in music. 

Fitness to Purpose.—The first principle to be considered 
in work with little children is the principle of “fitness to 
purpose,” or utility. All improvement in technique in the use 
of materials is approached from the standpoint of this prin- 
ciple. The designation of the principle, “fitness to purpose,” 
is self-explanatory. Everything that exists for a purpose is 
limited by the requirements of that purpose. The first test 
of the excellence of any article is how well it meets the re- 
quirements, or how closely it approaches fitness to purpose. 


I0O THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


Real delight in articles purchased is assured if one, after hav- 
ing carefully analyzed the need that suggests the article, will 
keep the requirements constantly in mind until the right article 
is found. To be sure, it is a difficult feat to perform with the 
modern shops displaying many distractions. 

Instances of Violation.—One violation of the principle of 
utility results from misdirection of an over-esthetic sense. 
From a desire to be artistic without the balance-wheel of 
utility, the most ridiculous atrocities result. Decoration must 
always be a part of the object it adorns, must enrich it and 
increase its loveliness, services which, of course, it cannot 
perform if it interferes with the function of the object. If, on 
account of an attempt to make it beautiful, a pitcher fails 
in its purpose to hold a liquid and allow a liquid to be suc- 
cessfully poured from it, it can never be a satisfaction. The 
portiére, which obviously has as its reason for being the 
separation of two rooms, is ridiculous when it appears made 
from beads. A vase that has capacity to hold many flowers 
should not have a base so small as to allow the most delicate 
flower to upset it, and a neck so narrow as scarcely to permit 
one small stalk to be squeezed into it. 

The second violation of the principle of utility is the use 
of a less expensive material to imitate a rarer article in an 
attempt to make “one just as good.”’ Imitation leather, imi- 
tation fruit, imitation grass-cloth, imitation flowers cannot 
satisfy the principle of fitness to purpose, because they are 
made from “make-believe” materials and cannot possibly 
perform the real functions of the materials they imitate. 
For example, fruit exists for food. Put in its place a bowl of 
artificial fruit and try to justify it from the principle of utility. 

As was previously stated, every principle of art regarded 


SUMMARY OF ART PRINCIPLES IOI 


gives enjoyment, and disregarded gives displeasure. The 
application is universal. The principle of utility is not limited 
to fine arts. Conversation, clothes, music, and decoration 
give pleasure when they are consistently selected and used. 
Perhaps nothing is so completely disgusting wherever it ap- 
pears as imitation. 

Teaching Children Principle of Utility —Much can be done 
to teach the principle of fitness to purpose to little children. 
The teacher can talk about their clothes, discussing with the 
children how their different clothes are made for different 
kinds of weather and for different social situations. The chil- 
dren can easily recognize the difference in their raincoats to 
keep them dry, and their wool clothes to keep them warm; 
their rubber boots, their leather boots and sandals; their 
play clothes and party clothes. 

In making any articles the children and teacher should 
discuss what would be the best material and arrive at the 
decision by analyzing the essentials of the article. The articles 
should be examined after they are made and tested in order 
to discover how well they fit their purpose. 

In planning the classroom the teacher should first of all 
decide on the real purpose of the room; then the things for 
the room should be chosen and arranged with a view to meet- 
ing those requirements. This will eliminate many senseless 
decorations and substitute articles that are genuinely beauti- 
ful. It will allow the cupboards to be unblushingly a part of 
the kindergarten room. It will eliminate the decoration from 
the top of the piano, since the piano is a musical instrument 
and does not need a fern to decorate it any more than a violin 
needs a bow of ribbon. It will result in the basis of a beautiful 
room in that it, first of all, is admirably adapted to its purpose. 


102 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


Adaptation.—Adaptation is the process by which fitness 
to purpose is accomplished. “Conventionalization” is the 
term that was formerly used to designate the principle. 
The term ‘“conventionalize” suggested changing a motif 
until it, having received some peculiar or distorted shape, 
might be considered a design. The term “adaptation” sug- 
gests taking a motif and material and changing it so that it 
fits certain requirements; this later term therefore much more | 
accurately describes the principle. One sees in dishes, furni- 
ture, books, and many other things lack of application of 
this principle. Because something in nature is beautiful it 
is used as a decoration in the belief that it will continue to 
afford pleasure. This is impossible, because it has not been 
adapted to meet its new conditions. The beautiful bluebirds 
painted on a plate; the picture of the President on a sofa 
cushion; Niagara Falls, a panting dog, or red roses reproduced 
in a rug—these are only a few of the ridiculous results of 
planning decoration without application of the principle of 
adaptation. Nature affords motifs, but these motifs must 
be changed. The test of a good design is not how much it 
resembles the natural motif. This was unfortunately the idea 
of the woman who bought a vase because it was decorated 
with grapes so realistic that she thought she could pick 
them. The motif may be considered the raw material and the 
design the finished product; the test of the product is how 
well it fulfills its purpose, and not how much it resembles the 
raw material. Many things are made from wood: desks, 
chairs, tables, bookcases. Not one resembles the tree as it 
grows, yet that fact does not detract from the excellence of 
the article. 

Balance.—Balance is, perhaps, the most commonly appre- 
ciated principle of art. It is first realized when one learns to 


SUMMARY OF ART PRINCIPLES 103 


walk. There are very few people who are not sensitive to 
balance. The small boy speaks of something being “lop- 
sided,” or one hears of something being “‘top-heavy.”’ Both 
criticisms are aimed at lack of balance. 

Kinds.—Two kinds of balance are recognized. In apparent 
(or formal) balance, one object or attraction is balanced by 
a duplicate object or, attraction equally distant from the 
centre. Formal balance is observed in formal public buildings 
in Colonial houses, in the human figure (front or back view), 
in Greek temples, in the violet, pansy, and sweet pea, and in 
the pictures ““The Last Supper” and the “Frieze of the 
Prophets.” 

In hidden (or informal) balance, the object or attraction 
is balanced by a different object or attraction unequally dis- 
tant from the centre. Informal balance is observed in the 
bungalow, in the human figure (side view), in landscapes and 
trees, and in the pictures ‘The Madonna of the Chair” and 
Whistler’s ‘Portrait of His Mother.” 

Perhaps the seesaw affords the first working knowledge of | 
balance in the experience of the individual. The principles. 
discovered there are universally applicable. If the weights are 
equal, each requires the same amount of board, and they are, 
therefore, the same distance from the pivot, or the centre. 
This is formal balance, or equal weights. If the weights are 
unequal, they balance at different distances from the centre. 
The heavy weight must slide toward the centre. The lighter 
weight must slide toward the end. In the process of getting 
ready to seesaw, it is usually discovered that where un- 
equal weights are to be balanced, the heavier weight must be 
placed nearer to the centre and the lighter weight farther 
from the centre. This is the principle of informal balance. 

The principles of balancing actual weights are quite simple, 


104 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


since every one has had experience with the comparative 
weights of objects. Difficulties in balance arise when pic- 
tures are to be hung on walls or when pages, rooms, and bul- 
letin-boards are to be arranged. The same principles apply. 
In place of “weights” the term ‘“‘attractions” should be sub- 
stituted. Where unequal attractions are to be balanced, the 
greater attraction should be placed nearer the centre and the 
lesser attraction farther from the centre, and on the opposite 
side. 

By the term “attraction” is meant that quality which 
absorbs interest. Every dot, line, mass, or color constitutes 
an attraction. Several factors determine the relative amount 
of attraction an object possesses: 


(x) Size. All things being equal, the larger of two objects 
constitutes the greater attraction. 


(2) Color. The more intense the color, the greater the at- 
traction. A small amount of bright color may bal- 
ance a large amount of dull or grayed color. 


(3) Contrast in value. The stronger the contrast, the 
greater the attraction. Black against white makes 
a very strong attraction, while two values close 
together makes a lesser attraction. 


(4) Variety in contour makes for stronger attraction. The 
less the object conforms in shape of outline to the 
objects near it, the greater the attraction. A large 
piece of furniture that conforms in outline to the 
lines of the room will have less attraction than a 
small table holding a vase with variety in contour. 
A rectangular picture has less attraction than a 


SUMMARY OF ART PRINCIPLES 105 


round picture. (Again it is necessary to remember 
that attraction does not necessarily mean satisfac- 
tion.) 


Little children have observed the principles of balance in 
their seesaws and in weighing groceries when they play store. 
They can be led to observe the same principle of balance in 
the decorations of a room, their clothes, in flowers, and in 
their pets. When they discuss balance they will point out 
and talk about other instances where it is observed. Balance 
should be discussed in connection with the decorations chil- 
dren plan and pictures that they paint. 

Much can be done to restore balance in ciassroom arrange- 
ment if attractions are taken into consideration. The large 
pieces of furniture may be balanced by use of bright color 
in a picture or a vase. The bulletin-board should be arranged 
to balance as a unit and at the same time to take its proper 
place in the arrangement of the room. 

Rhythm.—Rhythm is related movement. It is gained by 
repetition, but it must be orderly repetition. Petals ar- 
ranged on a flower show a regular repetition of a shape; the 
result is pleasing; the same petals or shapes when scattered 
are repeated, but repeated without order, and give no par- 
ticular enjoyment. 

Development of Rhythmic Sense.—There is undoubtedly 
earlier response to rhythm than to any other art principle. 
The members of a savage tribe dance in response to the 
regular beating of a stick. The tiny baby watches intently 
the regular movement of a swinging ball. An undeveloped 
sense of rhythm responds to a monotonous unaccented repe- 
tition. Examples of the delight in this elemental rhythm are 


106 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


furnished in the art and music of the savage tribe. As the 
sense of rhythm becomes more developed there is less plea- 
surable response to monotonous unaccented repetition. In 
music the simplest accented repeat is march time, which is 
the first to be enjoyed after the unaccented time ceases to 
please; later, waltz time is appreciated. Early poetry was in 
the form of a regular unaccented chant, which developed into 
the complicated rhythms of modern poetry. The development 
of the sense of rhythm may also be traced in art from the 
regular repetition of simple lines in borders to the repetition 
of units with accents, and later the freer, more complicated 
repetition of line, mass, and color that occurs in masterpieces. 

Every one understands the desire to respond to the rhythm 
in music by singing, dancing, or marching. Yet, few people 
realize that it is the stimulation of the same sense of rhythm 
that holds them spellbound before a sea which rolls up white- 
caps and breaks them against a rocky coast in a marvellous 
mass, repeating again and again the same satisfying curves. 
The same delight is felt wherever one experiences repeating 
or echoing lines, masses or colors; in the repeating curves of 
the weeping willow as it waves in the wind; in the curved 
lines of the Lombardy poplars; in the long lines of the low 
hills against the sky; in the stately perpendicular lines of the 
tree trunks in a pine forest; in the skyward-stretching lines 
of a Gothic cathedral, and in the earth-echoing lines of the 
Greek temple. 

Rhythm Needs of Little Children.—The rhythmic sense, 
then, though elemental and universal, develops with use, and 
therefore in work with little children no attempt should be 
made to force appreciation of complicated rhythms which 
they do not yet feel. 


SUMMARY OF ART PRINCIPLES 107 


The children may satisfy their desire for repetition by re- 
peating a unit in one direction to form a border, or in two 
directions to form all-over patterns. Borders may be made 
for their clay-bowls and booklet covers; borders and all-over 
designs may decorate their aprons and their doll clothes. 

Children can appreciate rhythm in line and realize that 
satisfaction is gained where there is repetition of line, mass, or 
color. The serving of milk made the children in a first-grade 
class feel the need of napkins. They made them of unbleached 
muslin and planned a decoration. In a discussion of the de- 
signs which were to be cut out of cloth and appliquéd on to 
the napkin, one design was uniformly liked. The question 
was asked: “I wonder why you like John’s pattern best.” 
One boy responded: “Because it kinda fits in the corner of 
the napkin,” indicating with his hands how he had the feel- 
ing of its fitting in. Every design that gives real esthetic 
enjoyment must rhyme with, echo, or fit the space it deco- 
rates. The children had developed one of the most important 
applications of the principle of rhythm. They looked around 
the room for lines that “fit” and discovered them in the lines 
of the room, the blackboard, floor, books in the bookcase, 
and in pictures on the wall. One day the children astonished 
their teacher by pointing out the lines and masses in “The 
Madonna of the Chair” that “fit” the circle. 

The satisfactory arrangement of booklet covers, of placing 
a name on an invitation, decorating a programme, or mount- 
ing a picture involves the application of the principle of 
rhythm. 

In room arrangement the lines of the larger attractions 
should echo the lines of the room. The folds of the curtains 
should form soft lines, repeating the straight lines of the 


108 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


walls. The mount must fit or rhyme with the picture it is to 
hold. The material arranged on the pages of a book, or on a 
bulletin-board, must conform with the straight lines of the 
borders. Variety is introduced in the details. 

Violation of the principles of rhythm results in unrest and 
confusion. Children who have a tendency to violate the 
principle of rhythm by placing things ‘‘cornerwise” do so 
not from a natural inclination, but because of having seen it 
done. Few children fail to recognize, at least in some degree, 
beauty. They may be led to observe also the principles of 
rhythm which lead to restful satisfaction. 

Unity through Subordination.—Subordination is the means 
of gaining unity. It is the subduing of less important parts 
to emphasize the whole or to accent more important parts. 
The petals of a rose are so arranged that no individual petal 
attracts attention, but each contributes to the whole—the 
rose. Leaves and branches are subordinated to the tree. 

The ‘‘centre of interest” is established by arranging every 
detail so that it contributes to, rather than detracts from, 
the important feature. Subordination of parts may be gained 
through size, placing, contrast, or color. Little children em- 
phasize and subordinate almost entirely by means of differ- 
ence in size. They draw very large that which interests them, 
and very small that which does not interest them. Thus the 
flowers in their drawings may grow to the level of the house- 
top, and the man may be shown twice as large as the trees 
among which he walks. In their means of subordination 
children apparently repeat the race experience. Many of 
the early Christian paintings show the Madonna emphasized 
by size. In some cases the Madonna is many times larger 
than the surrounding figures. Later artists discovered that, 


SUMMARY OF ART PRINCIPLES 10g 


though maintaining consistent sizes, they could still make 
the ‘centre of interest”? dominant by making each element 
add its share to the theme through careful arrangement of 
the contributing parts. 

Later, children wish to know other means of emphasis. 
The teacher may ask: “‘What is the most important thing 
in our picture?” or “What do we most want to show by our 
poster?” “Then, how can we make these things seem most 
important to the people who look at them?” Using the chil- 
dren’s suggestions as much as possible, the teacher can lead 
them to see how less important parts of the picture, project, 
or decorations may be subordinated by means of color, size, 
or placing. 

In the arrangement of displays of children’s work, much 
can be done to avoid the appearance of a hopeless conglom- 
eration by the subordination of individual articles through 
grouping. The articles may be grouped on the basis of a com- 
mon color, material, or interest. 

Unity in the classroom may be gained through consistent 
emphasis and subordination of parts. Spots of interest may 
be established through grouping. The centre of interest should 
be reserved for the things that deserve the most attention. 
A primary teacher painted her waste-basket, clay-can, and 
wood-box a brilliant yellow, because “little children love bright 
color.”’ As one entered the room the yellow articles leaped out 
and demanded undeserved attention. How much more con- 
sistent and satisfying was the room across the hall. The 
teacher had subordinated the unimportant waste-basket and 
clay-can by painting them to harmonize inconspicuously 
with the furniture in the room. The bright color was supplied 
in pictures, in flowers, in bright accents of pottery, and in 


IIo THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


the arrangement of the bulletin-board. The furniture was 
grouped in units, each unit subordinated to the whole. 

To have established unity through subordination and em- 
phasis is to have gained the intellectual satisfaction of or- 
ganization and the esthetic satisfaction of harmony. 

Color.—All color can be classified as belonging to one of 
five typical color groups, or families: red, yellow, green, blue, 
and violet. The five typical colors may be arranged around 
a circle, and between each two colors may be inserted the 
proper hues, as blue-green between blue and green. The colors 
that occur opposite each other on the color circle are called 
opposite, or complementary, colors. If mixed together they 
produce gray, or neutrality. 

Three qualities are essential in accurately describing a 
color: 


(1) Hue is that quality which names a color. It classifies 
the color into one of the five large groups, and may 
additionally classify it by indicating its tendency 
toward a similar color, as blue green or red violet. 

(2) Value refers to the amount of light in a color without 
reference to hue or intensity. The value scale ranges 
in equal steps from black to white. Strong contrast 
in values results in strong attractions. Values that 
occur close together on the scale constitute lesser 
attractions. 

(3) Intensity, or chroma, means the strength of a color. It 
refers to the saturation, or to the degree of removal 
from neutrality. A color may range in intensity 
from pure color to grayness. A color is grayed, or 
neutralized, by adding its complement. ; 


SERIES. OF CHILDREN’S PICTURES SHOWING 
IMPROVEMENT IN USE OF COLOR 


PLATE XIII. KINDERGARTEN 


Child has used all colors indiscriminately. 


PLATE XIV. Furst GRADE. 


Child has selected certain colors. 


PLATE XV. SECOND GRADE. 


Child has used different values of one color with accent of analagous 
colors. 


(Also note improvement in proportion.) 





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“The house with the fence.” 


PLATE XIV. 





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| Sareea 





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SUMMARY OF ART PRINCIPLES III 


Harmony involves having something in common. Colors 
nay be harmonious if they have a common hue with variety 
n intensity or value, as, light green and dark green, or gray 
rreen and bright green. 

Colors may have a common value and vary in hue or in 
ntensity or may have a common intensity and vary in hue 
or in value. 

Hues that have a color in common are called analogous: 
jlue and green or blue and violet. Analogous colors form a 
lose harmony. Hues that are opposite, or complementary, 
ntensify each other and must be neutralized, each one taking 
mn some of the qualities of the other, if they are used together. 
Before two hues can be used together they must have some 
common qualities. 

Values form close harmonies when they occur close together 
mn the scale, and strong contrast where they are far apart. 
Where there is reason to attract attention, use contrasting 
values. Where subtle background is desired, keep the values 
lose together. 

Intense colors attract attention. Grayed color is retiring. 

Color may be classified into cold and warm color. Cold 
colors have a predominance of blue and suggest ice and cold- 
ness. Warm colors suggest heat and are those having a pre- 
Jominance of red and yellow. Much can be done psycho- 
logically in warming or cooling a room by means of color. 

Children’s Use of Color.—Children first see differences in 
hue. They should learn the five typical colors, which should 
be spoken of as color families. They should collect color and 
classify as members of one of the five families. 

Later they observe differences in value light blue and dark 
blue. Differences in intensity are not readily recognized, and 





112 THE BEGINNINGS OF ART 


should be discussed after the child has had much color expe- 
rience. 

After he passes through the experimental stage, in which he 
uses all colors together, the child enjoys simple color har- 
monies. He enjoys combining values of one color with one 
accenting color, and he likes to have things “match” in color. 
He soon enjoys tints of color, lighter in value than pure color 
but just as intense as are observed in his enjoyment of pinks 
and pale blues and greens. Grayed color looks faded to him. 
All color should be more intense for the child than for the 
adult because of the child’s undeveloped color sense. To insist 
on giving a child grayed color is injurious, both physiologically 
and psychologically. Physiologically, it is through use that 
the cones, the end organs of color, are developed. If color is 
very much grayed the stimulus is not sufficient to enable the 
child to see color at all. Through lack of use the color sense 
will not be developed. Psychologically, children crave brilliant 
color. If they do not have it at the proper time an abnornal 
desire for pure color may appear in later life, at a time when 
they should naturally be enjoying subdued color. 

Color in Classroom Arrangement.—In the consideration 
of color in the classroom the teacher must remember that 
the walls, floor, and ceiling are background and should be 
kept so by being done in grayed color. In order to keep the 
woodwork from attracting attention apart from the wall, it 
must be closely related to the wall in value. The bright color 
in the room should be reserved for the spots which should 
have attention. The child delights in color and should have 
it around him in abundance, but it must be intelligently used 
in order to be of value in his development. 


SUMMARY OF ART PRINCIPLES 113 


The understanding of art principles provides stepping- 
stones by which the child ascends to powers of more adequate 
expression. ‘When the child comes to have the habit of look- 
ing at his own products, of comparing them with his original 
image, and of criticising one by reference to the other (with- 
out being unduly discouraged and thus paralyzed) the battle 
for technique is, in principle, won. The crying evil is the 
abstraction of the technique, making it in reality only a means 
toward the true end—free expression—an end in itself.”* 


* Dewey, John, “Imagination and Expression,” Kindergarten Magazine, 
September, 1896, pp. 61-69. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


EDUCATION 


Dewey, John, Democracy and Education. (Macmillan.) 

Dewey, John, How We Think. (Heath.) 

Dewey, John, School and Society. (Univ. of Chicago Press.) 

Dewey, John, The Psychology of Drawing. (Teachers College.) 

Dewey, John, The Child and the Curriculum. (Univ. of Chicago Press.) 

Bonser, Frederick G., The Elementary School Curriculum. (Macmillan.) 

Meriam, J. L., Child Life and the Curriculum. (World Book Co.) 

Jennings, Herbert S., Suggestions of Modern Science Concerning Educa- 
tion. (Macmillan.) 

Hartman, Gertrude, The Child and His School. (Dutton.) 

Hollingworth, Leta S., Special Talents and Defects. (Macmillan.) 


ART 


Dow, Arthur W., Composition. (Doubleday, Page.) 

Bailey, Henry T., Art Education. (Riverside Press.) 

ee aes a How Children Learn to Draw. (Ginn.) 

Lemos, Pedro J., Applied Art. (Pacific Press.) 

Batchelder, Ernest A., Design in Theory and Practice. (Macmillan.) 

Parsons, Frank A., Interior Decoration. (Doubleday, Page.) 

eae es) a aud A Text Book in Design. (Houghton Mifflin.) 

Munsell, A. H., A Color Notation. (Munsell.) 

Bonser, Frederick G., and | Industrial Arts for Elementary Schools. 

Mossman, Lois C. (Macmillan.) 

Sargent, Walter, The Enjoyment and Use of Color. (Scribners.) 

McCarty, Stella Agnes, Children’s Drawings. (Williams and Wilkins 
Company.) 


114 


INDEX 


Ability, ro, rr. 

Activities, 5,6, 7, 12; early use of clay, 
15; record of, 72, 73; with clay in kin- 
dergarten, 75. 


Kindergarten: 
In use of clay, 75; wood, 76; cloth, 
77; paint, 78. 


Grade I: 


In use of clay, 80; wood, 81; cloth, 
82; paint, 83. 


Grade IT: 


In use of clay, 85; wood, 86; cloth, 87; 
paint, 88 


Adaptation, principles of, 102. 

Arrangement, of classroom, 90-93; 
utility in, 90, 91; rhythm in, 107, 
108; unity in, 109, r10; color in, 112. 

Art appreciation, 1, 63-67; capacity 
of children for, 63, 64; range of, 64; 
desired growth in, 65; provision for 
growth in, 65, 66; common approach 
to, 67; factor in making curriculum, 
Vi Seve e 

Art courses, public school, 1; in former 
curricula, 68. 

Art curriculum, 68, 69; former con- 
ceptions of, 68; factors in making, 
69; art process, 69; need for tech- 
nique, 70; objectives and standards, 
71; appreciation a factor, 71, 72; 
record of activities and outcomes, 
72, 73; curriculum defined, 89. 

Art principles, 94-113; utility, 109; 
proportion, 20, 50, 95, 96; balance, 
20; rhythm, 20; perspective, 50, 513 
composition, 51; class discussion of, 
97, 98; of drawing, 94-98; of design, 
99-113; of utility, 99-100; of adap- 


Its 


tation, 102; of balance, 102, 103, 
104, 105; of color, 110-112. 

Art process, 5, 6; factor in making 
curriculum, 69. 

Attention, span of 11. 

Attitudes: 


Kindergarten : 


In use of clay, 75; wood, 76; cloth, 77; 
paint, 78. 


Grade I: 


In use of clay, 80; wood, 81; cloth, 82; 
paint, 83. 


Grade IT: 


In use of clay, 85; wood, 86; cloth, 87; 
paint, 88. 


Attraction, 104. 


Balance, as applied in clay work, 20; 
kinds, 103, 1045 children’s use of, 
105; in terms of weight, 103; attrac- 
tion, 104, 105. 

Biology, principles of, ro. 

Bonser, curriculum, 80. 

Brace and bit, 30. 

Brushes, paint-brushes, 55; care of, 56. 

Bulletin-boards, 92-93. 

By-products, 59-62; kinds, 59; oppor- 
tunity for social growth through 
use, 59, 60; basis for improvement 
in, 60, 61; things children make, 61. 


Capacities, 11. 

Children, things children make from 
clay, 27; special problems in clay, 
24; things children make from wood, 
35; special problems in painting, 51, 
52, 53; ideas in painting, 53; things 
children make from by-products, 61; 


116 


art appreciation of, 63; considera- 
tion for in room arrangement, 91; 
use of balance, 105; rhythm needs 
of, 106, 107; use of subordination, 
10g, 110; use of color, 111, 112. 

Circle, 97. 

Classroom, arrangement of, 90-93; 
utility applied in, 90, 91; color in, 
91; consideration of children in, 91; 
pictures for, 92; bulletin-boards, 92, 
93; rhythm in, 107, 108; unity in, 
109, 110; color in, 112. 

Clay, 6, 7, 12, 13, 15-29; early activi- 
ties, 15; joy in use of, 15; manipula- 
tive stage, 15; symbolic stage, 16; 
basis of judgment in symbolic stage, 
17; realistic stage, 18; basis of judg- 
ment in realistic stage, 18, 23, 24; 
improvement on basis of art prin- 
ciples, 19-20; decoration of, 20; im- 
provement of surface, 20; provisions 
for growth, 21; class discussion of, 
21; handles, 22; care of, 25; con- 
sistency, 26; amount necessary, 20, 
27; paints for clay, 27; things chil- 
dren make from clay, 27; special 
problems, 24; record for kinder- 
garten, 75; record for first grade, 
80; record for second grade, 85. 

Cloth, 36-42; manipulative stage, 36; 
first use of cloth, 36, 37; sewing ma- 
terials, 37; symbolic stage, 38; real- 
istic stage, 38; standards for judging 
realistic stage, 38; seam, 38; hem, 
38, 30; pattern, 39; decoration, 40; 
things children make from, 40; pro- 
visions for growth, 41; record for 
kindergarten, 77; first grade, 82; 
second grade, 87. 

Color, development of sense, 53, 543 
in arranging classroom, 91; prin- 
ciples of, 110-112; qualities of, 110; 
harmony in, 111; children’s use of, 
III, 112; development of sense, 112; 
in classroom arrangement, 112. 

Constructing, 3. 

Contributions, of biology, 10; of psy- 
chelogy, 10; of sociology, ro. 

Crayon, 14. 


INDEX 


Criticism, ability to give and take, 11. 
Curriculum, art, 68. 


Decoration, 4, 5; of clay, 20; on cloth, 
40; principles of, 100. 

Design, 5; principle of utility, 99, 100; 
violation of principle of utility, 100, 
ror; teaching children principle of 
utility, ror; principle of adaptation, 
102; of balance, 102, 105; of rhythm, 
105; of subordination, 108; of color, 
IIO-I12. 

Development, 5, 6, 7; physical, 10; 
provision for, 54; mental, 10; pro- 
vision for, 54, 60; social, 13; provi- 
sion for, 54; ideas, 5, 7; stimulation 
of, 53; of color sense, 112. 

Dewey, 1, 2, 7, 113. 

Dolls, 40, 61. 

Discussion, of clay work, 21; in class- 
room, 97, 98. 

Drawing, 7; principles of, 94, 98; tech- 
nique in painting, 50, 51; provision 
for more, 57; library of form, 57. 


Easel, 55, 56. 

Educational principles, 10; use of, 12. 

Educative process, 10. 

Emotions, ri. 

Equipment, child’s native, 11; utiliza- 
tion of, 12. 

Evaluation, of art, 2; of art work, 17, 
18, 23, 24, 34, 44, 47, 62; symbolic, 
7; materials, 12. 

Experiences, story, 3; social, 3; home, 
3; play, 3; emotional, 4; art experi- 
ences, 5; race experiences, 5; child 
experiences, 12. 

Expression, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9; liberation 
of in painting, 53. 


First Grade: objectives and standards 
for use of materials, 79; for clay, 
80; for wood, 81; for cloth, 82; for 
paint, 83; activities and outcomes 
for clay, 80; for wood, 81; for cloth, 
82; for paint, 83. 

Fitness to purpose. See Utility. 

Form, 7; original, 9; of expression, 9; 
library of form, 57; use of, 57. 


INDEX 


Gimlet, 30. 

Grades, See First Grade, etc. 

Growth, 2; education as, 2; possibili- 
ties of, 53 provision for, 12; provi- 
sion for, in use of clay, 16, 21; 
through use of wood, 34, 35; through 
use of cloth, 41; through use of 
paint, 54; through use of by-prod- 
ucts, 59, 60; in art appreciation, 65, 
66. 


Habits, in wood work, 32; in clay 
work, 21; in painting, 56, 67. 


Kindergarten: 


In use of clay, 75; wood, 76; cloth, 77; 
paint, 78. 


Grade I: 


In use of clay, 80; wood, 81; cloth, 82; 
paint, 83. 


Grade IT: 


In use of clay, 85; wood, 86; cloth, 87; 
paint, 88. 


Hammer, 29. 

Handles, clay, 22. 

Hand work, to. 

Harmony, color harmony, 111. 
Hem, 38, 39. 

Hue, r10. 


Imagery, 8. 

Images, 9. 

Imitation, 1, 25. 

Improvement, on basis of principles, 
utility, 19; on surface of clay, 20; 
in technique of painting, 50, 573 
basis for, in use of by-products, 60, 


61. 
Inhibition, 8. 
Intensity, 110. 


Jennings, 10. 

Judgment, basis of, in symbolic stage 
of clay work, 17; in realistic stage of 
clay work, 18, 23, 24; in symbolic 
stage of wood work, 33; in realistic 


117 


stage of wood work, 34; in sym- 
bolic stage of painting, 48; in realis- 
tic stage of painting, 49; in realistic 
stage of use of cloth, 38. 


Kindergartens: objectives and stand- 
ards for use of materials, 74; for 
clay, 75; for wood, 76; for cloth, 7 
for paint, 78; activities and out- 
comes: clay, 75; wood, 76; cloth, 
76; paint, 77. 

Knowledges: 


Kindergarten: 


In use of clay, 75; wood, 76; cloth, 77; 
paint, 78. 


Grade I: 


In use of clay, 80; wood, 81; cloth, 82; 
paint, 83. 


Grade II: 


In use of clay, 85; wood, 86; cloth, 87; 
paint, 88. 


Landscape, 96, 97. 

Lesson, art, I. 

Liberating, power, 8; expression, 53, 
17, 47- 


Manipulative stage, 6, 7, 8; in use of 
clay, 15; wood, 33; cloth, 36; paint, 
45. 

Materials, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10; selection 
of, 12; modelling, 13; weaving, 13- 
43, 44; plastic, 15; clay, 15-29; care 
of clay, 25; consistency of clay, 26; 
amount of clay, 26, 27; paint for 
clay, 27; wood, kinds of, 32; roving, 
43, 44; for use in painting, 54-56; 
objective in use of, 73. 


Media, 2, 3; clay, 12, 15-29; cloth, 12, 


13, 14, 30-42; crayon, 12, 14; paint, 
12, 14, 45-58; pasteboard, 12; pen- 
cils, 12, 143 plasticine, 12: raffia, 12, 
13; reed, 12, 13; roving, 14, 43, 445 
wood, 12, 29-35; yarn, 12, 14. 
Mitre-box, 30. 
Modelling, 3, 4; materials, 12, 13. 


118 


Nails, 30. 
Needs of children, 13. 


Objectives, in use of materials, 73; 
in use of kindergarten materials, 
74; in use of clay in kindergarten, 
75: 

Kindergarten: 


In use of materials, 74; in use of clay, 
75; wood, 76; cloth, 77; paint, 78. 


Grade TI: 


In use of materials, 79; in use of clay, 
80; wood, 81; cloth, 82; paint, 33. 


Grade IT: 


In use of materials, 84; clay, 85; 
wood, 86; cloth, 87; paint, 38. 


Observations, 3. 


Paint, 14, 45-58; for clay, 27; manipu- 
lative stage, 45; symbolic stage, 46; 
standards for judging in symbolic 
stage, 48; realistic stage, 49; stand- 
ards for judging in realistic stage, 
49; help in technique, 50, 51; special 
problems, 51, 52, 53; over-attention 
to technique, 52; stimulation of 
ideas, 53; color in use of, 53, 54; pro- 
vision for growth through use of, 54; 
materials for use: paper, 55; brushes, 
55; paints, kinds of, 55; easel, 55, 56; 
mixing of paints, 55; care of brushes, 
56; habits in use of, 56, 57; record 
for kindergarten, 78; record for 
first grade, 83; record for second 
grade, 88. 

Paper, 6, 13; crepe, 14; use of, 14; un- 
printed news, 55. 

Pasteboard, 13. 

Pattern, 39. 

Pencils, 5, 14, 95. 

Perspective, 4; landscape, 96, 97; of 
circle and rectangle, 97. 

Pictures, 7; appreciation for, 63, 64; 
selection of, 64; for classroom, 92; 
mounting, 92. 


INDEX 


Plasticine, 13. 

Point of view in art, r. 

Principles, 1, 5; art, 9, 94-113; educa- 
tional, 10; biological, 10; psychologi- 
cal, 10; utility, 19; proportion, 20, 
50; balance, 20; rhythm, 20; per- 
spective, 50, 51; composition, 51; 
of drawing, 94-98; of design, 99; of 
rhythm, 105; of subordination, 108; 
of color, 110-112. 

Problems, 2; presence of, 11; solution 
of, 11; special problems, 24. 

Process, artistic, 5, 6; educative, 10. 

Proportion, as applied in clay work, 
20; improvement in, 95-96. 

Psychology, principles of, ro. 


Raffia, 13. 

Realistic stage, 9; in use of clay, 18; 
judgment of, 18, 23, 24; in use of 
wood, 34; judgment of in wood work, 
34; in use of cloth, 38; judgment in 
use of cloth, 38; in use of paint, 48, 
49; judgment in use of paint, 49. 

Record of activities and outcomes, 72, 
73; of work of children, 74-78; a 
basis for art curriculum, 89. 

Rectangle, 97. 

Reed, 13. 

Resemblance, 7. 

Rhythm, 5; as applied in clay work, 
20; principle of, 105; development 
of rhythmic sense, 105, 106; rhythm 
needs of children, 106, 107; rhythm 
in room arrangement, 107, 108; vio- 
lation of principles, 108. 

Roving, 14, 43, 44; use of, 43, 44; 
looms for, 43, 44. 


Sandpaper, 31. 

Satisfaction, 10, 12, 13; in use of clay, 
15. 

Saw, 30. 

Seam, 38. 

Second Grade: objectives and stand- 
ards for use of materials, 84; for 
clay, 85; for woed, 86; for cloth, 87; 
for paint, 88; activities and out- 


INDEX 


comes for clay, 85; wood, 86; cloth, 
87; paint, 88. 

Selection of materials, principles of, 12. 

Self-expression, r. 

Sewing, materials, 37; seam, 38; hem, 
38, 39; pattern, 37. 

Sketches, 5. 

Skills, 1, 5. 


Kindergarten: 


In use of clay, 75; wood, 76; cloth, 77; 
paints, 78. 


‘Grade I: 


In use of clay, 80; wood, 81; cloth, 82; 
paints, 83. 


Grade II: 


In use of clay, 85; wood, 86; cloth, 87; 
paints, 88. 


Sociology, principles, 11. 

Stages (steps), manipulative, 6, 15, 33, 
36, 45; symbolic, 7, 16, 17, 33, 38, 
46, 48; realistic, 9, 18, 34, 40. 

Standards, in judging materials, 12; 
in clay work—symbolic stage, 17; 
realistic stage, 18, 23, 24; in wood— 
symbolic stage, 33; realistic stage, 
34; in cloth—realistic stage, 38; in 
paint—symbolic stage, 48; realistic 
stage, 49; factor in building curric- 

um, 71; in use of kindergarten 
materials, 74; in use of clay in kin- 
dergarten, or, 


Kindergarten: 
In use of materials, 74; in use of clay, 
75; wood, 76; cloth, 77; paint, 78. 
Grade I: 
In use of materials, 79; clay, 80; wood, 
81; cloth, 82; paint, 83. 
Grade II: 


In use of materials, 84; clay, 85; wood, 
86; cloth, 87; paint, 88. 


119 


Subordination, as a means to unity, 
108; children’s means of, 108, 109; 
classroom, 109, IIO. 

Symbolic stage, 7; importance of, 8; 
in clay, 16; basis of judgment in, 17; 
in use of wood, 33; Judgment of in 
wood work, 33; in use of cloth, 38; 
in use of paint, 46; judgment in use 
of paint, 48. 

Symbols, 7, 8, 9. 


Technique, 7, 8, 9; improving on basis 
of principles, utility, 18, 19; im- 
proving in paint, 50, 51; over-atten- 
tion to, in paint, 52; factor in build- 
ing curriculum, 70. 

Tool-chest, 29. 

Training, 10. 


Unity, through subordination, 108; in 
classroom, 109, IIo. 

Utility, as applied in clay work, 19; as 
basis of room arrangement, 90, 91, 
101; in design, 99, 100; instances of 
violation of, 100, 101; teaching to 
children, ror. 


Value, 110. 
Vise, 31. 


Weaving, materials, 13; roving, 43, 
44; looms, 43, 44. 

Wood, 10, 29-353 tool-chest, 29; tools, 
29-323: sandpaper, 31; wood hlerat: 
work-bench, 1°: Vise; 313 kinds of, 
32; habits, 32; manipulative stage, 
23° Senbate stage, 33; realistic 
stage, 34; standards for work in 
symbolic stage, 33; standards for 
work in realistic stage, 34; provision 
for growth in, 34, 35; things children 
make, 35; record for kindergarten, 
763 first grade, 81; second grade, 86. 

Wood file, 31. 

Work bench, 31. 


Yarn, 14. 


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